Assyria and the Bible

Introduction

(Posted 2024-01-30, revised 2024-03-05)

When sharing our faith with open-minded skeptics, the two questions they ask first might be:

(1)   Can you prove God exists?

(2)   Can you present evidence outside the Bible that the events described in the Bible really happened?

Regarding the first question, we cannot prove God exists, but we can argue with facts and reasons that it is more logical to believe he exists than to believe he does not. However, we can give concrete evidence in answer to the second question. Surprisingly, the evidence is found in the records of ancient Assyria, Israel’s archenemy in biblical times. Assyrian kings kept detailed records of their interactions with other nations, including Israel. Many people, places, and events of the Old Testament are recorded in Assyrian chronicles. In addition, people, places, and events of the Old Testament are engraved in Assyrian artwork.

The first external archaeological corroboration of a biblical event was discovered in Assyrian chronicles and artwork, in 1847. Archaeologists discovered Assyrian bas reliefs depicting the battle for Lachish of 701 BC, alluded to in 2 Chronicles 32:9-10. We will examine those reliefs in detail in a later section.

Similarly, people, places, and events of Assyrian civilization are recorded in the Old Testament. Assyria is very prominent in Old Testament prophecy (e.g., the books of Isaiah, Jonah, and Nahum). Deliverance of Jerusalem from Assyrian conquest in 701 BC is evidence of a miraculous work of God. Revival thrived in the southern kingdom of Judah in the aftermath of Jerusalem’s deliverance from Assyrian conquest.

Several kings of Assyria are mentioned in the Old Testament. Tiglath Pileser III, who ruled from 745 to 727 BC, is mentioned in 2 Kings 15:29, 2 Kings 16:7, 2 Kings 16:10, 1 Chronicles 5:6, 1 Chronicles 5:26, and 2 Chronicles 28:20. Tiglath Pileser began the conquest of the northern kingdom of Israel. Shalmaneser V, who ruled from 727 to 722 BC, is mentioned in 2 Kings 17:3-4 and 2 Kings 18:9-11. He continued the conquest of Israel. Sargon II, who ruled from 722 to 705 BC, is mentioned in Isaiah 20:1. He completed the conquest of Israel when he captured the capital city Samaria. Sargon recorded the event in his royal inscriptions:

... as for the people of the city Samaria who had come to an agreement with a king hostile to me not to do obeisance to me or to bring tribute to me and who had offered battle, … I fought them and brought about their defeat ... I carried off as booty … people who lived there... I restored the city Samaria and made it greater than before. I brought there people from the lands that I had conquered. (Sargon II 1-12b)

Sennacherib, who ruled from 705 to 681 BC, is mentioned in 2 Kings 18-19, 2 Chronicles 32, Isaiah 36:1, and Isaiah 37. He tried to conquer the southern kingdom of Judah, but failed when he tried to capture Jerusalem. Esarhaddon, who ruled from 680 to 669 BC, is mentioned in 2 Kings 19:37, Ezra 4:2, and Isaiah 37:38. Ashurbanipal, who ruled from 669 to 627 BC, is mentioned in Ezra 4:8-10.

The figure below is a bas relief image recovered from the ruins of ancient Assyria. It shows Sargon II (right) and his son and crown prince Sennacherib (left). Note the conical hat worn by Sargon. That hat easily distinguishes the king from other persons in the images of ancient Assyria.

Major Assyrian expansion against her neighbors began around 1310 BC. Over time, Assyria built an iron age army when most civilizations were still in the bronze age. The main tasks of an Assyrian king were to conduct military campaigns and to raise up public buildings. Those were religious duties, performed in obedience to the gods of Assyria. It was customary for the Assyrian king to lead a military expedition every year. War booty funded the building of palaces, temples, canals, and other public works. Slaves and materials were brought from conquered lands. Assyria conquered, quite brutally, Babylonia, the land of the Hittites, Phoenicia, Syria, Lebanon, the northern kingdom of Israel, most of Judah, and Egypt. Assyria demanded tribute from conquered nations, usually gold, silver, tin, copper, bronze, iron, and building materials.

The map below shows the Assyrian Empire at its height. The dark green region is often referred to as the early Assyrian Empire. The light green region shows Assyria’s expansion during the period known as the neo-Assyrian Empire.

Assyria ruled much of the ancient Near East for about two centuries and then fell after a successful rebellion in Babylon. Assyria's capital city of Nineveh was destroyed in 612 BC. The destruction of Nineveh was so thorough that it was not rediscovered until the 1800s. The empire imploded quickly after the fall of Nineveh, never to rise again.

When an Assyrian king returns from a campaign, he has a triumphal procession. Two chariots would lead the procession, carrying the standards of the great gods of Assyria, followed by a parade of Assyrian soldiers, long rows of prisoners escorted by soldiers, wagons filled with spoils of war, a parade of musicians and entertainers, and finally, the king riding his chariot, pulled by war stallions. The procession would stop at a temple of the great gods for the king to offer homage, and then proceed to the king’s palace. Crowds would be cheering the king’s triumphant return.

The Assyrians were exceptionally cruel conquerors. The tortures, horrors, and massacres they inflicted on conquered peoples exceed the horrors committed by the Nazis in their depth, although not necessarily in their extent. For example, the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II (ruled 883-859 BC) waged horrible wars of conquest, inflicting great terror, torture, and slaughter upon his helpless victims. Stark examples of his atrocities are recorded in a royal inscription called Year 2. Against the Rebels in Halzi-Luha in the Kashiari Hills:

To the mountain of Kashiari I crossed, to Kinabu, the fortified city of Hulai, I drew near. With the masses of my troops and by my furious battle onset I stormed, I captured the city; 600 of their warriors I put to the sword; 3,000 captives I burned with fire; I did not leave a single one among them alive to serve as a hostage...  Their corpses I formed into pillars; their young men and maidens I burned in the fire... The city of Mariru, which was within their borders, I captured. Fifty of their warriors I put to the sword; 200 of their captives I burned with fire... From Kinabu I departed, to the city of Tela I drew near... Many captives from among them I burned with fire, and many I took as living captives. From some I cut off their hands and their fingers, and from others I cut off their noses, their ears, and their fingers(?), of many I put out the eyes.

That is a typical example of Ashurnasirpal’s atrocities. Several other royal inscriptions describe similar horrors. His son Shalmaneser III was not far behind in acts of cruelty against conquered peoples. Tiglath Pileser III described brutal wars of conquest in his royal inscriptions. Ashurbanipal, the last of the “great” kings of Assyria, waged an extremely brutal war against Egypt, with massacres of the inhabitants of entire cities, along with utterly ruthless pillaging and plundering of Egypt’s cities. Some scholars say Ashurbanipal was the cruelest of the conquering kings. Based on my readings of royal inscriptions, I contend that Ashurnasirpal was the cruelest. There is room for differences in opinion. In any case, the last place on earth you would want to be in those days is in the path of a conquering Assyrian army. It is easy to see why Jonah was so reluctant to travel to Assyria.

So why would a student of the Bible want to learn about such an evil nation as Assyria? As stated above, the kings of Assyria recorded the events of their reigns in royal inscriptions and monuments that have survived to this day. Many of their records are inscribed on baked clay tablets recovered by Layard’s expeditions. Those records confirm many people, places, and events of the Old Testament, especially people, places, and events in 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles, and Isaiah. They bear witness to the historical reliability of the Old Testament.

Assyria and the Bible

Part 1. The Archaeological Discoveries of Sir Austen Henry Layard

(Posted 2024-01-30)

Sir Austen Henry Layard (1817-1894) was a famous British Archaeologist and statesman. He led major archaeological expeditions to the ruins of ancient Nineveh, Nimrud, and Babylon. His team discovered several awesome monuments, thousands of inscribed clay tablets and bricks, marble reliefs, cylinder seals, and pieces of jewelry. Layard had an extraordinary career. In addition to his career as an archaeologist, he was elected a Member of Parliament in 1852. He was awarded the Freedom of the City of London in 1853 for discoveries that demonstrated “the accuracy of Sacred History.” He also served as Britain’s ambassador to Spain from 1869-1877 and ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1877-1878.

Layard lived the life of an Indiana Jones. If you have watched Indiana Jones movies, you know the main character had shootouts with bandits, and life-threatening encounters with wild animals, snakes, and giant bugs. He also ate native foods that we would be too squeamish to even taste. Layard lived those experiences during his archaeological expeditions. He packed a gun. While traveling through desert lands on the way to ancient sites, he got into shootouts with bandits trying to steal his beasts of burden. He lived in tents. Lions, hyenas, and jackals roamed through the campsites at night. Swarms of scorpions and other poisonous critters invaded the tents at night. During a visit to an ancient site, he discovered a nearby cave and went inside to explore it. He was attacked by a swarm of thousands of bats inside the cave. He ran out of the cave, literally covered head-to-toe with bats. It was extremely difficult to pry the bats off his clothing. He ate native foods. For example, the tribesmen who accompanied him during the expeditions served him a meal consisting of milk, raw meat, and leaves, all mixed together like some kind of cold soup.

Several of Layard’s discoveries confirmed people, places, and events of the Old Testament. In his own words,

Who would have believed it probable or possible, before these discoveries were made, that beneath the heap of earth and rubbish which marked the site of Nineveh, there would be found the history of the wars between Hezekiah and Sennacherib, written at the very time they took place by Sennacherib himself, and confirming even in minute details the Biblical record? He who would have ventured to predict such a discovery would have been treated as a dreamer or an impostor. (Nineveh and Babylon, by Austen Henry Layard)

One of his greatest discoveries was a lamassu of ancient Assyria. A lamassu is a winged bull with five legs and a crowned male human head with a braided beard. Lamassus are symbols of the power and might of ancient Assyria. They always appear in pairs facing outward from the entrance to a palace or a grand hall. The Assyrians believed lamassus protected them from evil spirits. The arrival of a lamassu at the British Museum in London caused a sensation. The image below from a London newspaper shows the lamassu being towed into the museum.

The Illustrated London News, February 28, 1852

The figure below shows a clear image of a lamassu.

The figure below shows an artist’s concept of an Assyrian king’s palace. Note the lamassus and the lavish artwork. Today, the lamassus and the ruins of Assyrian palaces look stony gray, but in their day they were painted in dazzling colors. The colors faded over time. However, scientists can still detect ancient painted surfaces and give us a reconstruction of how they looked in their heyday.

Many of the great archaeological discoveries are from Nimrud, a city on the east shore of the Tigris River, about a day’s ride south of Nineveh. The figure below shows how Nimrud might have looked around 705 BC, based on sketches drawn by Layard. It looks like a nice place to live until you consider the cruelty and pagan practices of the Assyrians. The large structure on the left is a ziggurat, a multi-layered temple to one of their gods. The small structure at the top of the ziggurat is the god’s shrine, an Assyrian counterpart to the Holy of Holies of the Old Testament. The large structure on the right is the king’s palace complex.

In the days of Ashurnasirpal II, the capital city of Assyria was Ashur (also the name of Assyria’s bloodthirsty god of war). Ashurnasirpal wanted a new capital city for Assyria, so he built Nimrud and moved the seat of government to the new city. A later king, Sargon II, also wanted a new capital city, so he built Khorsabad but died shortly after the city was completed. Sennacherib, Sargon’s son and successor, moved the capital to Nineveh around 705 BC, where it remained until the fall of the empire. Khorsabad was abandoned in place. Sennacherib left many monuments behind in Khorsabad. They were preserved through the ages. Today, many are on display at the British Museum in London.

In the next section (to be posted in a few weeks), we examine some monuments and texts recovered from the ancient Assyrian cities of Nineveh and Nimrud.

Assyria and the Bible

Part 2. Assyrian Monuments that Affirm Old Testament History

The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III

(Posted 2024-02-02)

This monument was discovered in the ruins of Nimrud, the capital of the Assyrian Empire (before the era when Nineveh was the capital). It is on display at the British Museum in London. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (ruled from 859-824 BC) waged war against an alliance of twelve nations that included the northern kingdom of Israel in the days of King Ahab. The monument has scenes of kings delivering tribute to Shalmaneser. The bottom scene in the figure above shows King Jehu of the northern kingdom of Israel bowing to Shalmaneser. An inscription on the monument says:

Tribute of Jehu, son of Omri. Silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden beaker, golden goblets, pitchers of gold, lead, staves for the hand of the king, javelins, I received from him.

(Note it misidentifies Jehu as a son of Omri.) That is the earliest known reference to a biblical figure, outside the Bible.

Some Assyrian kings required rulers of other nations to worship them. The ruler would be commanded to kiss the feet of the king or to kiss the feet of a statue of the king. Note Jehu is not kissing Shalmaneser’s feet. Food for thought: Was Jehu intentionally refusing to commit idolatry, or was this just an error of the sculptor who carved the obelisk? The Bible does say Jehu destroyed the worship of Baal in backslidden Israel, but he did not destroy the golden calves that were set up by King Jeroboam I. Jehu tolerated pagan idolatry in Israel, but it appears there were lines he was not willing to cross.

The figure below shows a pagan king kissing Shalmaneser’s feet. Note Shalmaneser is holding a bow in his left hand and a cluster of arrows in his right hand. That is a sign of judgment. If the king of Assyria holds the bow so that the back side faces the visitor and he points to the visitor with the tail end of the arrows, that visitor is to be spared. But if the king holds the bow so that the front side faces the visitor and he points to the visitor with the front end of the arrows, that visitor is to be executed. Shalmaneser is sparing the pagan king. Note Shalmaneser is not holding a bow and arrows during Jehu’s visit. That is a sign that he received Jehu as a “friend.”

The Tell al-Rimah Stele

The Tell al-Rimah Stele displays some royal inscriptions of the Assyrian king Adad Nirari III (ruled 810-783 BC). The stele has the earliest cuneiform reference to Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel. It mentions tributes paid by the kings of Israel, Tyre, and Sidon to Assyria.

The Jerusalem Prism and the Lachish Reliefs

Sennacherib’s Invasion of Judah in 701 BC

(Posted 2024-02-03)

The Assyrian king Sennacherib (ruled 705-681 BC) recorded his military campaign against Judah in the days of King Hezekiah. Detailed accounts are found on three clay prisms inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform around 691-689 BC. The prisms tell only of victories. They never admit defeats. One prism is on display at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. One is on display at the British Museum in London. One is on display at the Oriental Museum of the University of Chicago. They are known, respectively, as the Jerusalem Prism, the Taylor Prism, and the Oriental Prism. Often, archaeological discoveries are named after the museum that exhibits the discovered artifact (e.g., the Israel Museum and the Oriental Museum), or the name of the scholar who discovered the artifact or translated inscriptions on the artifact (e.g., Taylor). Figure 1 shows the Jerusalem prism.

The capture of Lachish was Sennacherib’s greatest victory in the war, although Assyrian casualties were heavy. The battle for Lachish is engraved in the Lachish reliefs, discovered in 1847 in the ruins of Nineveh. The reliefs consist of very large and detailed sculptures of scenes from the battle. They covered walls of Sennacherib’s opulent palace at Nineveh. They depict fierce battle scenes, Sennacherib deciding the fate of prisoners, and graphic scenes of impaled, beheaded, and flayed prisoners. The reliefs are on display in the Lachish Room of the British Museum in London.

Figure 2 shows a battle scene. The Assyrians are rolling a battering ram up a siege ramp against the walls of Lachish. The defenders of Lachish are fighting ferociously. Soldiers on a watchtower are shooting arrows and hurling missiles at the advancing Assyrians. Blazing torches and missiles thrown from the walls of Lachish are raining on the Assyrians. An Assyrian soldier holding a very large spoon is pouring water to quench any flames on the battering ram.

Figure 3 shows the partially excavated ruins of Lachish.

Figure 4 shows the siege ramp, which is still standing today as a silent reminder of one of the most ferocious battles of biblical times.

Sennacherib succeeded in conquering Lebanon, Syria, Phoenicia, Philistia, and a large part of Judah, but failed to capture Jerusalem. He also failed in his invasion of Egypt. In the Jerusalem Prism account, he seems to imply he gracefully left Hezekiah in Jerusalem and returned peacefully to Nineveh with tribute, leaving behind a submissive Hezekiah. But we know mighty conquerors do not just return from a campaign when they are so close to achieving victory. Something very big must have compelled Sennacherib to return to Assyria without taking Jerusalem.

What could have compelled Sennacherib to turn back from Jerusalem when he was on the verge of total victory over Judah? He captured forty-six cities in Judah. The greatest of those was Lachish, the most heavily fortified city in Judah. Why did he not lead his vast and triumphant army into one more battle to take Jerusalem? All the treasures of Solomon’s rich temple could be his. Why would he be content to return home with just the tribute from Hezekiah when he could have taken everything? According to the Bible, a higher power prevented Sennacherib from taking Jerusalem. The prophet Isaiah declared Jerusalem would not fall.

“Therefore this is what the Lord says concerning the king of Assyria: “‘He will not enter this city or shoot an arrow here. He will not come before it with shield or build a siege ramp against it. By the way that he came he will return; he will not enter this city, declares the Lord. I will defend this city and save it, for my sake and for the sake of David my servant.’” That night the angel of the Lord went out and put to death a hundred and eighty-five thousand in the Assyrian camp. When the people got up the next morning—there were all the dead bodies! So Sennacherib king of Assyria broke camp and withdrew. He returned to Nineveh and stayed there. One day, while he was worshiping in the temple of his god Nisrok, his sons Adrammelek and Sharezer killed him with the sword, and they escaped to the land of Ararat. And Esarhaddon his son succeeded him as king. (2 Kings 19:32-37)

Isaiah’s prophecy of deliverance of Jerusalem came to pass. We also know as historical fact that Sennacherib was murdered by two of his sons. Figure 5 shows the prophet Isaiah assuring King Hezekiah that Sennacherib will not capture Jerusalem.

The deliverance of Jerusalem from Assyrian conquest is evidence of a miraculous work of God. There is no reason to believe Jerusalem could survive an onslaught by the Assyrian army, especially after the fall of Lachish. It is extremely unlikely Sennacherib turned back out of the goodness of his heart. God intervened and saved his Holy City, just like the prophet said. The Bible says an angel of the Lord saved Jerusalem by killing 185,000 Assyrian soldiers. After Sennacherib’s withdrawal from Jerusalem, Assyria gave up on trying to conquer lands in Palestine south of Samaria.

There is great Messianic significance in the deliverance of Jerusalem. If Jerusalem had fallen, the Assyrians would have executed Hezekiah sadistically. The Assyrians were known to roast alive captured rulers of defiant cities, along with their families, over a slow fire. Hezekiah and his family would likely have endured a similar fate. At the time Hezekiah had no son, but if he had one, his son would have been executed too. With the death of Hezekiah, the royal line from David through Solomon and subsequent kings of Judah would have come to an end. The lineage of Messiah would be over. God’s promise of a son of David enthroned forever over Israel would have failed (2 Samuel 7:12–16). No line of David, no Jesus! Jerusalem was spared, Hezekiah lived, Sennacherib died, the lineage of David continued, and Jesus came.

Jerusalem survived the cataclysmic events of 701 BC. The surviving remnant of Judah remained free. Revival thrived in the land in the aftermath of Jerusalem’s deliverance. Hezekiah implemented several religious reforms. He ordered the destruction of pagan shrines throughout the land. It was also a time of rebuilding cities destroyed by the Assyrians. Judah remained free from foreign oppression for the time being.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 1. Roman Prejudice Against Jews and Christians

On the first Sunday of November, Christian churches throughout the world participate in the International Day of Prayer for the Persecuted Church. I felt this is a good time to remind Christians of the history of persecution of the saints. Persecution of Christians is not new. For three hundred years, the Caesars of Rome ruthlessly persecuted the Church of Christ. In our modern age, Christians continue to endure violent persecution. Muslim militants attack Christians throughout central Africa, the Middle East, and the Philippines. Hindu nationalists persecute Christians in India. Buddhist militants attack Christians in Sri Lanka. Communist regimes in China, North Korea, and Cuba persecute the saints. Communist guerillas in Central and South America continuously attack Christian workers.

I wrote this article to tell the story of persecution under the Caesars of Rome. Skeptics claim the early church exaggerated, invented, and forged stories of Christian martyrs. Those skeptical views are appearing in books and are airing on television documentaries. Skeptics claim there was no three hundred year “Age of Martyrs” under Roman rule. They deny that Christians were systematically persecuted by a brutal Roman Empire. They deny that large numbers of believers were thrown to the lions, tortured, or burned alive because they refused to renounce Christ. We know that in the first four centuries AD, about a dozen Roman emperors persecuted Christians. Often, it was local rulers who started the persecutions, with approval from Rome. In this article we examine evidence from the most significant periods of persecution, along with accounts from eyewitness sources, both Christian and non-Christian.

Christians were taught by the apostles to expect suffering at the hands of the authorities (John 15:20, 2 Timothy 3:12-13, 1 Peter 4:13-16). In the second century AD, a Christian who died for Christ was called a martyr. A Christian who confessed Christ's lordship at trial, but was not executed, was called a confessor.

Generally, the Roman state was tolerant of other religions, as long as they did not convert Romans. If they converted Romans, they were considered to be cults, which were illegal. Rome had accepted the gods of conquered nations as “legal religion” based on local ancient traditions. That included the God of Israel. Many local gods and goddesses from the provinces were given Roman names and were worshipped as Roman gods.

Initially, Christians were considered to be a sect of the Jews. Roman law required emperor worship by all as proof of loyalty. Subjects of the empire were required to burn incense before a statue of the emperor. However, Roman law exempted the Jews from emperor worship. For a while, Christians were covered by the Jewish exemption. The Jews in Rome kept to themselves and did not proselytize. That kept them out of trouble with the Roman authorities. The Christians in Rome proselytized local people under the Great Commission (Matthew 28:18-20). Christians came under suspicion. Over time, the wrath of the Roman state came upon them.

The Romans detested the Jews because Jews were strict monotheists who would not worship the gods of Rome, even though Rome tolerated worship of the God of Israel (as long as the Jews did not try to convert Romans). Anti-Jewish prejudice was applied to the Christians since the Christians were viewed as a sect of the Jews.

Roman prejudice against Jews can be traced to the writings of Publius Cornelius Tacitus (c.56-c.120 AD), a Roman senator and historian. Tacitus wrote several books, including the Annals, the Histories, and Agricola, copies of which survive to this day. Tacitus wrote a distorted account about the Hebrew exodus from Egypt. In the Histories (book 5, paragraph 3), he wrote

Most authors agree that once during a plague in Egypt which caused bodily disfigurement, King Bocchoris​ approached the oracle of Ammon and asked for a remedy, whereupon he was told to purge his kingdom and to transport this race into other lands, since it was hateful to the gods. So the Hebrews were searched out and gathered together; then, being abandoned in the desert, while all others lay idle and weeping, one only of the exiles, Moses by name, warned them not to hope for help from gods or men, for they were deserted by both, but to trust to themselves, regarding as a guide sent from heaven the one whose assistance should first give them escape from their present distress. They agreed, and then set out on their journey in utter ignorance, but trusting to chance. Nothing caused them so much distress as scarcity of water, and in fact they had already fallen exhausted over the plain nigh unto death, when a herd of wild asses moved from their pasturage to a rock that was shaded by a grove of trees. Moses followed them, and, conjecturing the truth from the grassy ground, discovered abundant streams of water. This relieved them, and they then marched six days continuously, and on the seventh seized a country, expelling the former inhabitants; there they founded a city and dedicated a temple.

Tacitus’ account is very distorted, but even so, he did acknowledge certain facts that modern day skeptics deny. He acknowledged that the Hebrews came out of Egypt and were led by Moses. He acknowledged that a plague compelled Egypt to release the Hebrews. Note Tacitus claims the Jews were expelled from Egypt, i.e. they must have been such bad people that they did not even deserve to be slaves in Egypt! He also acknowledged the Hebrews eventually settled into a new land, subdued the inhabitants of the land, and built a temple for God. The six days of marching and the capture of a country on the seventh day is suggestive of the taking of Jericho in Joshua 6.

In book 5, paragraph 4, Tacitus wrote

To establish his influence over this people for all time, Moses introduced new religious practices, quite opposed to those of all other religions. The Jews regard as profane all that we hold sacred; on the other hand, they permit all that we abhor. They dedicated, in a shrine, a statue of that creature whose guidance enabled them to put an end to their wandering and thirst,​ sacrificing a ram, apparently in derision of Ammon.​ They likewise offer the ox, because the Egyptians worship Apis. They abstain from pork, in recollection of a plague, for the scab to which this animal is subject once afflicted them. By frequent fasts even now they bear witness to the long hunger with which they were once distressed, and the unleavened Jewish bread is still employed in memory of the haste with which they seized the grain. They say that they first chose to rest on the seventh day because that day ended their toils; but after a time they were led by the charms of indolence to give over the seventh year as well to inactivity.​ Others say that this is done in honor of Saturn, whether it be that the primitive elements of their religion were given by the Idaeans, who, according to tradition, were expelled with Saturn and became the founders of the Jewish race, or is due to the fact that, of the seven planets that rule the fortunes of mankind, Saturn moves in the highest orbit and has the greatest potency; and that many of the heavenly bodies traverse their paths and courses in multiples of seven.

That is a distorted account. Even so, it is suggestive of some elements of the Old Testament Law, especially dietary laws and the matter of keeping sabbaths. The references to the Roman god Saturn is probably just an attempt to dismiss Judaism as another pagan religion.

Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (c.155-c. 240 AD), a Christian apologist and theologian, known as “the father of Latin Christianity” and “the founder of Western theology,” wrote a rebuttal to Tacitus’ writings. In his Apology (chapter 16), Tertullian wrote

For, like some others, you are under the delusion that our god is an ass's head. Cornelius Tacitus first put this notion into people's minds. In the fifth book of his histories, beginning the (narrative of the) Jewish war with an account of the origin of the nation; and theorizing at his pleasure about the origin, as well as the name and the religion of the Jews, he states that having been delivered, or rather, in his opinion, expelled from Egypt, in crossing the vast plains of Arabia, where water is so scanty, they were in extremity from thirst; but taking the guidance of the wild asses, which it was thought might be seeking water after feeding, they discovered a fountain, and thereupon in their gratitude they consecrated a head of this species of animal. And as Christianity is nearly allied to Judaism, from this, I suppose, it was taken for granted that we too are devoted to the worship of the same image.

Roman anti-Christian propaganda portrayed Christians as worshippers of a crucified ass. An example of this propaganda is the Alexamenos graffito, a plaster image discovered at the Palatine Hill in Rome in 1856 during excavations of the imperial palace complex. It shows a young man worshipping a crucified man with the head of a jackass (recall what Tacitus wrote about the God of the Jews), mocking Christian belief in a crucified deity. The image was dated to the late second century AD. It is currently on display at the Palatine Hill Museum in Rome.

Celsus, a second century AD pagan Greek philosopher, was a vehement opponent of Christianity. He wrote many slanderous attacks against both the Jewish and Christian faiths in his treatise, A True Discourse (written around 175-177 AD). Only fragments of A True Discourse survive to this day.

According to Celsus, the stories in the Hebrew Bible are fables. He claimed Judaism is a false religion that had a barbarous origin. He claimed Moses was a deceiver who convinced his followers into believing there is only one god, and who taught the Jews to worship angels and to practice sorcery. Celsus also claimed Moses falsified the Genesis flood story from the ancient Greek version of the great flood. (Modern day skeptics still allege something along those lines, such as Moses copying the flood account from the ancient Babylonian flood account. The old lie started by Celsus endures to this day in one form or another.)

Celsus wrote many terrible things against Jesus and Christians. Examples: The birth of Jesus was not a virgin birth; Jesus was born the illegitimate son of Mary and a soldier named Panthera. Jesus lived an infamous life. He learned magic and sorcery while living in Egypt, and performed fake miracles with magic and sorcery. The disciples were criminals and Jesus was their ringleader. Regarding the resurrection, Celsus alleged Jesus lacked the power to open the tomb, and someone else had to roll away the stone. The resurrection appearances of Jesus were really appearances of a shadow (a ghost or phantom?). About Christians in general, Celsus alleged Christians welcome ignorant, unintelligent, uninstructed, or foolish people, but not wise people. Christians succeeded in converting silly, mean, and stupid people, and women and children. Christians performed miraculous acts using demonic powers, practiced sexual immorality, and ate the flesh of infants. Celsus actually called for the extinction of Christians. He wrote

They must make their choice between two alternatives. If they refuse to render due service to the gods, and to respect those who are set over this service, let them not come to manhood, or marry wives, or have children, or indeed take any share in the affairs of life; but let them depart hence with all speed, and leave no posterity behind them, that such a race may become extinct from the face of the earth.

Contemporary scholars believe Celsus’ attacks on Christianity influenced subsequent Roman emperors to launch intense persecutions against Christians. Examples of common accusations: Christians were subversive, sexually immoral, perverted, incestuous, practiced cannibalism (ate their own children, kidnapped other children, killed them, drank their blood, cooked them, and ate them), and Christian men murdered their fathers and married their own mothers.

Not all ancient Roman authorities wrote negatively about Christians. The highly regarded physician Galen of Pergamum (129-c.216 AD) wrote commendably about Christians in his commentary on Plato’s Republic.

In the religious community of the followers of Christ there are most admirable people who frequently act according to perfect virtue; and this is to be seen not only in their men but in their women as well.

…

From this we may infer that the people called Christians derive their faith from signs and miracles. Also, sometimes, they show such behavior as is adopted by philosophers; for fearlessness of death and the hereafter is something we witness in them every day. The same is true of abstention from sexual intercourse. Some of them, both men and women, go their whole life without sexual intercourse. There are among them those who possess such a measure of self-control with regard to food and drink and who are so bent on justice, that they do not fall short of those who profess philosophy in truth.

Unfortunately, the Roman authorities did not share Galen’s positive view of Christians. The Romans detested the Jews, and also detested Christians because the Christians were just another Jewish sect. Over time, the Roman authorities singled out the Christians from the Jews, and targeted them for selective persecution. In part 2 of this series, we examine the beginning of violent persecution under the emperor Nero.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 2. The Beginning of Violent Persecution

Rome Persecutes the Church

Prior to the emperor Nero, there were small-scale, intermittent persecutions of Christians. The Roman historian Suetonius (c.69-after 122 AD) wrote The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. He mentioned the expulsion of Christians from Rome that took place during the rule of the emperor Claudius (around 52 AD). In The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, The Life of Claudius (chapter 25, paragraph 3), Suetonius wrote

Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome.

Chrestus is probably the way Suetonius spelled Christ. Note Suetonius does not distinguish Christians from Jews. His account seems to support Acts 18:1-3. In context, Paul had just finished preaching in Athens.

After this, Paul left Athens and went to Corinth. There he met a Jew named Aquila, a native of Pontus, who had recently come from Italy with his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had ordered all Jews to leave Rome. Paul went to see them, and because he was a tentmaker as they were, he stayed and worked with them. (Acts 18:1-3)

Large scale violent persecution began with the emperor Nero (ruled 54-68 AD). I want the reader to know beyond doubt how perverse Nero was. The next few paragraphs expound some hideous things about him, which may offend the reader’s sensibility. If you really want to know the depth of Nero’s depravity and barbarity, read on. Otherwise, please consider skipping down to the section below titled The Beginning of Mass Persecution.

History reveals Nero as extremely cruel, murderous, perverse, and immoral, driven by pleasure, and probably insane. He had his mother and one wife murdered, and he personally killed another wife. Suetonius described the depravity of Nero in The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, The Life of Nero. Some excerpts from Suetonius’ book:

(28) Besides the abuse of free-born lads, and the debauch of married women, he committed a rape upon Rubria, a Vestal Virgin. He was upon the point of marrying Acte, his freedwoman, having suborned some men of consular rank to swear that she was of royal descent. He gelded the boy Sporus, and endeavored to transform him into a woman. He even went so far as to marry him, with all the usual formalities of a marriage settlement, the rose-colored nuptial veil, and a numerous company at the wedding. When the ceremony was over, he had him conducted like a bride to his own house, and treated him as his wife. It was jocularly observed by some person, “that it would have been well for mankind, had such a wife fallen to the lot of his father Domitius.” This Sporus he carried about with him in a litter round the solemn assemblies and fairs of Greece, and afterwards at Rome through the Sigillaria, dressed in the rich attire of an empress; kissing him from time to time as they rode together. That he entertained an incestuous passion for his mother, but was deterred by her enemies, for fear that this haughty and overbearing woman should, by her compliance, get him entirely into her power, and govern in every thing, was universally believed; especially after he had introduced amongst his concubines a strumpet, who was reported to have a strong resemblance to Agrippina.

(29) He prostituted his own chastity to such a degree, that after he had defiled every part of his person with some unnatural pollution, he at last invented an extraordinary kind of diversion; which was, to be let out of a den in the arena, covered with the skin of a wild beast, and then assail with violence the private parts both of men and women, while they were bound to stakes. After he had vented his furious passion upon them, he finished the play in the embraces of his freedman Doryphorus, to whom he was married in the same way that Sporus had been married to himself; imitating the cries and shrieks of young virgins, when they are ravished. I have been informed from numerous sources, that he firmly believed, no man in the world to be chaste, or any part of his person undefiled; but that most men concealed that vice, and were cunning enough to keep it secret. To those, therefore, who frankly owned their unnatural lewdness, he forgave all other crimes.

Nero was overthrown and he took his own life. The people of Rome celebrated his demise.

The Roman historian, senator, proconsul, and consul, Cassius Dio (155-235 AD), also wrote about Nero’s perversions. In Roman History, book 62, chapters 27-28, Dio wrote

Sabina also perished at this time through an act of Nero's. Either accidentally or intentionally he had given her a violent kick while she was pregnant. The extremes of luxury indulged in by this Sabina I will indicate in the briefest possible terms. She had gilded girths put upon the mules that carried her and caused five hundred asses that had recently foaled to be milked each day that she might bathe in their milk. She devoted great thought to making her person appear youthful and lustrously beautiful,--and with brilliant results; and this is why, not fancying her appearance in a mirror one day, she prayed that she might die before she passed her prime. Nero missed her so that [after her death, at first, on learning that there was a woman resembling her he sent for and kept this female: later] because a boy of the liberti class, named Sporus, resembled Sabina, he had him castrated and used him in every way like a woman; and in due time he formally married him though he [Nero] was already married to a freedman Pythagoras. He assigned the boy a regular dowry according to contract, and Romans as well as others held a public celebration of their wedding.

In book 63, chapter 13, he wrote

Now Nero called Sporus Sabina not merely on account of the fact that by reason of resemblance to her he had been made a eunuch, but because the boy like the mistress had been solemnly contracted to him in Greece, with Tigillinus to give the bride away, as the law ordained. All the Greeks held a festal celebration of their marriage, uttering all the customary good wishes (as they could not well help) even to the extent of praying that legitimate children might be born to them. After that Nero took to himself two bedfellows, Pythagoras to treat as a man and Sporus as a woman. The latter, in addition to other forms of address, was termed lady, queen, and mistress. Yet why should one wonder at this, seeing that this monarch would fasten naked boys and girls to poles, and then putting on the hide of a wild beast would approach them and satisfy his brutal lust under the appearance of devouring parts of their bodies? Such were the indecencies of Nero.

The Beginning of Mass Persecution

On July 19 of 64 AD, a great fire swept through Rome. Nero blamed the Christians, and thus began the first large scale persecution of Christians under Roman rule. For the first time, Christians were treated as a separate sect from the Jews. Nero perpetrated extremely barbaric mass killings of Christians. The persecution impacted mainly the Christians in the city of Rome, but not so much in other parts of the empire. Tacitus described the persecution in the Annals, book 15, where he wrote about the aftermath of the burning of Rome, including Nero blaming the Christians.

Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to glut one man's cruelty, that they were being destroyed.

Note Tacitus lived during the time when those events took place, which makes him a very credible source. He certainly would have remembered the burning of Rome very vividly. Note also that Tacitus despised Christianity, calling it a “a most mischievous superstition.” Even so, he also made it clear that Nero was not acting out of a sense of justice, but was acting to satisfy his own cruelty, acting out of his sadistic nature. Even many from among the cruel and ruthless Romans felt compassion for the Christians.

Suetonius also wrote about the mass persecution. In The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, The Life of Nero, he wrote

Among the excesses of Nero’s reign, are to be mentioned the horrible cruelties exercised against the Christians in various parts of the empire, in which inhuman transactions the natural barbarity of the emperor was inflamed by the prejudices and interested policy of the pagan priesthood. The tyrant scrupled not to charge them with the act of burning Rome; and he satiated his fury against them by such outrages as are unexampled in history. They were covered with the skins of wild beasts, and torn by dogs; were crucified, and set on fire, that they might serve for lights in the night-time. Nero offered his gardens for this spectacle, and exhibited the games of the Circus by this dreadful illumination. Sometimes they were covered with wax and other combustible materials, after which a sharp stake was put under their chin, to make them stand upright, and they were burnt alive, to give light to the spectators.

Suetonius also wrote that it was Nero who burned Rome. In The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, The Life of Nero, he wrote

He spared, moreover, neither the people of Rome, nor the capital of his country. Somebody in conversation saying “When I am dead let fire devour the world. Nay let it be while I am living.” And he acted accordingly: for, pretending to be disgusted with the old buildings, and the narrow and winding streets, he set the city on fire so openly, that many of consular rank caught his own household servants on their property with tow, and torches in their hands, but durst not meddle with them. There being near his Golden House some granaries, the site of which he exceedingly coveted, they were battered as if with machines of war, and set on fire, the walls being built of stone. During six days and seven nights this terrible devastation continued, the people being obliged to fly to the tombs and monuments for lodging and shelter. Meanwhile, a vast number of stately buildings, the houses of generals celebrated in former times, and even then still decorated with the spoils of war, were laid in ashes; as well as the temples of the gods, which had been vowed and dedicated by the kings of Rome, and afterwards in the Punic and Gallic wars: in short, everything that was remarkable and worthy to be seen which time had spared. This fire he beheld from a tower in the house of Mecaenas, and “being greatly delighted,” as he said, “with the beautiful effects of the conflagration,” he sung a poem on the ruin of Troy, in the tragic dress he used on the stage. To turn this calamity to his own advantage by plunder and rapine, he promised to remove the bodies of those who had perished in the fire, and clear the rubbish at his own expense; suffering no one to meddle with the remains of their property. But he not only received, but exacted contributions on account of the loss, until he had exhausted the means both of the provinces and private persons.

Cassius Dio also wrote that it was Nero who burned Rome. In Roman History, book 62, chapter 16, he wrote

After this Nero had the wish (or rather it had always been a fixed purpose of his) to make an end of the whole city and sovereignty during his lifetime. Priam he deemed wonderfully happy in that he had seen his country perish at the same moment as his authority. Accordingly he sent in different directions men feigning to be drunk or engaged in some indifferent species of rascality and at first had one or two or more blazes quietly kindled in different quarters: people, of course, fell into the utmost confusion, not being able to find any beginning of the trouble nor to put any end to it, and meanwhile they became aware of many strange sights and sounds. For soon there was nothing to be observed but many fires as in a camp, and no other phrases fell from men's lips but "This or that is burning "; "Where?"; "How?"; "Who set it?"; "To the rescue!" An extraordinary perturbation laid hold on all wherever they might be, and they ran about as if distracted, some in one direction and some in another. Some men in the midst of assisting their neighbors would learn that their own premises were on fire. Others received the first intimation of their own possessions being aflame when informed that they were destroyed. Persons would run from their houses into the lanes with some idea of being of assistance from the outside, or again they would dash into the dwellings from the streets, appearing to think they could accomplish something inside. The shouting and screaming of children, women, men, and graybeards all together were incessant, so that one could have no consciousness nor comprehension of anything by reason of the smoke and shouting combined. On this account some might be seen standing speechless, as if dumb. All this time many who were carrying out their goods and many more who were stealing what belonged to others kept encountering one another and falling over the merchandise. It was not possible to get anywhere, nor yet to stand still; but people pushed and were pushed back, they upset others and were themselves upset, many were suffocated, many were crushed: in fine, no evil that can possibly happen to men at such a crisis failed to befall them. They could not with ease find even any avenue of escape, and, if any one did save himself from some immediate danger, he usually fell into another one and was lost.

A strange belief arose among followers of Nero that he would rise from the dead and return to rule the Roman empire once again. (Food for thought: Does that sound like something from the book of Revelation, like the coming of Antichrist?) Suetonius wrote about that in The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, The Life of Nero.

(57) He died in the thirty-second year of his age, upon the same day on which he had formerly put Octavia to death; and the public joy was so great upon the occasion, that the common people ran about the city with caps upon their heads. Some, however, were not wanting, who for a long time decked his tomb with spring and summer flowers. Sometimes they placed his image upon the rostra, dressed in robes of state; at another, they published proclamations in his name, as if he were still alive, and would shortly return to Rome, and take vengeance on all his enemies. Vologesus, king of the Parthians, when he sent ambassadors to the senate to renew his alliance with the Roman people, earnestly requested that due honor should be paid to the memory of Nero; and, to conclude, when, twenty years afterwards, at which time I was a young man, some person of obscure birth gave himself out for Nero, that name secured him so favorable a reception from the Parthians, that he was very zealously supported, and it was with much difficulty that they were prevailed upon to give him up.

So it appears Suetonius actually knew about a pretender who claimed to be the risen Nero, with support from the Parthians. It appears the Parthians were compelled to surrender him to the Roman authorities. Suetonius’ account is not clear regarding what happened next. It is safe to assume the Roman authorities conveniently disposed of the pretender.

Tacitus also wrote about the appearance of a pretender who claimed to be the risen Nero. In the Histories, book 2, chapters 8-9, he wrote

About this time Achaia and Asia were thrown into a groundless panic by a rumor that 'Nero was at hand'. The accounts of his death being many and various, people were all the more inclined to allege and to believe that he was still alive. We shall mention in the course of this work the attempts and the fate of the other pretenders. This time it was a slave from Pontus, or, according to other traditions, a freedman from Italy. His skill as a singer and harpist, combined with his facial resemblance to Nero, gave him some credentials for imposture. He bribed some penniless and vagabond deserters by dazzling promises to join him, and they all set out to sea. A storm drove them on to the island of Cythnus, where he found some troops homeward bound on leave from the East. Some of these he enrolled, killing all who resisted, and then proceeded to plunder the local merchants and arm all the sturdiest of the slaves. Finding a centurion named Sisenna carrying home a pair of silver hands as a token of alliance from the army in Syria to the Household Guards, he tried by various devices to seduce him, until Sisenna took fright and escaped secretly from the island in fear of violence. Thus the panic spread. The great name of Nero attracted many who pined for revolution and hated the existing state of things. The rumors waxed daily, until a chance dispelled them. Galba had entrusted the government of Galatia and Pamphylia to Calpurnius Asprenas, who had been granted an escort of two triremes from the fleet at Misenum. It so happened that with these he touched at Cythnus. The rebels lost no time in appealing to the ship's captains in the name of Nero. The pretender, assuming an air of melancholy, appealed to 'the loyalty of his former soldiers', and begged them to establish him in Syria or Egypt. The captains either from sympathy or guile alleged that they must talk to their men, and would come back when they had prepared all their minds. However, they faithfully made a full report to Asprenas, on whose instructions they boarded the ship and killed the impostor, whoever he was. The man's eyes and hair and ferocious look were so remarkable that the body was carried into Asia and thence to Rome.

So it seems the Roman authorities disposed of that particular pretender.

In part 3 we examine the martyrdom of Paul and Peter.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 3. The Martyrdom of Peter and Paul

The earliest account of the martyrdom of Peter and Paul is found in the writings of Clement of Rome (c.35-99 AD), a Roman bishop, who wrote to the Corinthians in 96 AD, about 30 years after Paul’s death. That is close enough in time to the events to be a reliable account. Clement is mentioned briefly in Paul’s epistle to the Philippians.

Yes, and I ask you, my true companion, help these women since they have contended at my side in the cause of the gospel, along with Clement and the rest of my co-workers, whose names are in the book of life. (Philippians 4:3)

According to Clement’s first epistle to the Corinthians (chapter 5),

But not to dwell upon ancient examples, let us come to the most recent spiritual heroes. Let us take the noble examples furnished in our own generation. Through envy and jealousy, the greatest and most righteous pillars [of the Church] have been persecuted and put to death. Let us set before our eyes the illustrious apostles. Peter, through unrighteous envy, endured not one or two, but numerous labors and when he had at length suffered martyrdom, departed to the place of glory due to him. Owing to envy, Paul also obtained the reward of patient endurance, after being seven times thrown into captivity, compelled to flee, and stoned. After preaching both in the east and west, he gained the illustrious reputation due to his faith, having taught righteousness to the whole world, and come to the extreme limit of the west, and suffered martyrdom under the prefects. Thus was he removed from the world, and went into the holy place, having proved himself a striking example of patience. (1 Clement 5)

The Martyrdom of Paul

The book of Acts ends with Paul under house arrest in Rome while awaiting trial. Some scholars think he was executed right after that. However, Eusebius of Caesarea (c.260-c.340 AD) wrote that Paul was not martyred during his time in Rome recorded in Acts. Paul’s house arrest at the end of Acts was for being accused of causing a riot in Jerusalem, not for being a Christian. Eusebius’ version is supported by the book of Acts.

The whole city was aroused, and the people came running from all directions. Seizing Paul, they dragged him from the temple, and immediately the gates were shut. While they were trying to kill him, news reached the commander of the Roman troops that the whole city of Jerusalem was in an uproar. He at once took some officers and soldiers and ran down to the crowd. When the rioters saw the commander and his soldiers, they stopped beating Paul. The commander came up and arrested him and ordered him to be bound with two chains. Then he asked who he was and what he had done. (Acts 21:30-33)

As a Roman citizen, Paul had the right to personally state his case before the emperor of Rome.

Paul answered: “I am now standing before Caesar’s court, where I ought to be tried. I have not done any wrong to the Jews, as you yourself know very well. If, however, I am guilty of doing anything deserving death, I do not refuse to die. But if the charges brought against me by these Jews are not true, no one has the right to hand me over to them. I appeal to Caesar!” After Festus had conferred with his council, he declared: “You have appealed to Caesar. To Caesar you will go!” (Acts 25:10-12)

Even while under arrest in Rome, Paul was allowed to preach, but under guard.

Three days later he called together the local Jewish leaders. When they had assembled, Paul said to them: “My brothers, although I have done nothing against our people or against the customs of our ancestors, I was arrested in Jerusalem and handed over to the Romans. They examined me and wanted to release me, because I was not guilty of any crime deserving death. The Jews objected, so I was compelled to make an appeal to Caesar. I certainly did not intend to bring any charge against my own people. For this reason I have asked to see you and talk with you. It is because of the hope of Israel that I am bound with this chain.” (Acts 28:17-20)

Hints about Paul’s imprisonment may be found in the books of Philemon and 2 Timothy. Philemon 8-11 suggests that Paul used to be in chains.

Therefore, although in Christ I could be bold and order you to do what you ought to do, yet I prefer to appeal to you on the basis of love. It is as none other than Paul—an old man and now also a prisoner of Christ Jesus— that I appeal to you for my son Onesimus, who became my son while I was in chains. Formerly he was useless to you, but now he has become useful both to you and to me. (Philemon 8-11)

Philemon 22 suggests Paul was acquitted after trial, and returned to fellowship with the saints.

And one thing more: Prepare a guest room for me, because I hope to be restored to you in answer to your prayers. (Philemon 22)

Second Timothy 4:6-7 suggests Paul knew he was near death at the time of writing this epistle. It is reasonable to believe Paul was executed shortly after this particular writing.

For I am already being poured out like a drink offering, and the time for my departure is near. I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith. (2 Timothy 4:6-7)

Since Paul was a Roman citizen, it is likely he was beheaded with a sword.

The Martyrdom of Peter

Peter told the church that persecution was already happening.

Dear friends, do not be surprised at the fiery ordeal that has come on you to test you, as though something strange were happening to you. But rejoice inasmuch as you participate in the sufferings of Christ, so that you may be overjoyed when his glory is revealed. (1 Peter 4:12-13)

Peter wrote of his own imminent martyrdom.

I think it is right to refresh your memory as long as I live in the tent of this body, because I know that I will soon put it aside, as our Lord Jesus Christ has made clear to me. And I will make every effort to see that after my departure you will always be able to remember these things. (2 Peter 1:13-16)

We already saw that Clement of Rome mentioned the martyrdom of Peter in 1 Clement, written shortly before the end of the first century AD. There are later sources that appeared long after the event. Since they appeared so late, it is possible some legends found their way into the accounts (unlike the canonized epistles and gospels, which were written when eyewitnesses were still alive).

Clement of Alexandria (c.150-215 AD) (not to be confused with Clement of Rome) wrote about the martyrdom of Peter’s wife. In the 7th book of Stromata, chapter 11, paragraph 9, Clement wrote

They say, accordingly, that the blessed Peter, on seeing his wife led to death, rejoiced on account of her call and conveyance home, and called very encouragingly and comfortingly, addressing her by name, ‘Remember thou the Lord.’ Such was the marriage of the blessed and their perfect disposition towards those dearest to them.

The New Testament bears witness that Peter’s wife travelled with him.

Don’t we have the right to food and drink? Don’t we have the right to take a believing wife along with us, as do the other apostles and the Lord’s brothers and Cephas? Or is it only I and Barnabas who lack the right to not work for a living? (1 Corinthians 9:4-6)

Eusebius wrote about the martyrdom of Peter and Paul, but keep in mind he is a later source. In Ecclesiastical History (book 2, chapter 25, paragraph 5), Eusebius wrote

It is, therefore, recorded that Paul was beheaded in Rome itself, and that Peter likewise was crucified under Nero. This account of Peter and Paul is substantiated by the fact that their names are preserved in the cemeteries of that place even to the present day.

The popular story that Peter was crucified upside down appeared long after the event. While it could be true, it may also be a legend. The story first appeared long after any eyewitness died.

In part 4, we examine the aftermath of Nero and the persecution under Domitian.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 4. Vespasian and Domitian

Rome descended into chaos after the death of Nero. In just one year Rome had three different emperors. After that interlude of instability, Vespasian became emperor in 69 AD.

Vespasian Persecutes the Jews

Vespasian was hostile to the Jews, but he did not persecute the Christians. In Ecclesiastical History (book 3, chapter 17), Eusebius confirmed that Vespasian did not persecute the church. Comparing a later emperor Domitian to Vespasian, Eusebius wrote

Domitian, having exercised his cruelty against many and unjustly slain no small number of noble and illustrious men at Rome and having, without cause, punished vast numbers of honorable men with exile and the confiscation of their property, at length established himself as the successor of Nero in his hatred and hostility to God. He was the second who raised a persecution against us, although his father Vespasian had attempted nothing to our prejudice.

Vespasian may be best known for the brutal suppression of a Jewish revolt in Israel. Jerusalem fell in 70 AD. The temple was destroyed.

According to Eusebius, Vespasian ordered that all the descendants of King David be sought, probably with the intent to kill them, and thus ensure there would be no Jews left who could claim to be King of the Jews. In Ecclesiastical History (book 3, chapter 12, paragraph 1), Eusebius wrote

It was also said that Vespasian, after the capture of Jerusalem, commanded all of the family of David to be sought, that no one might be left among the Jews who was of the royal stock, and, that in consequence another very violent persecution was raised against the Jews.

That was probably an attempt to eradicate the Messianic line from Israel.

Food for thought: Keep in mind Jesus was a descendant of David. Did the Romans suspect that a living relative of Jesus might claim to be the next King of Israel? The Bible does say Jesus had brothers and sisters in addition to James.

When Jesus had finished these parables, he moved on from there. Coming to his hometown, he began teaching the people in their synagogue, and they were amazed. “Where did this man get this wisdom and these miraculous powers?” they asked. “Isn’t this the carpenter’s son? Isn’t his mother’s name Mary, and aren’t his brothers James, Joseph, Simon and Judas? Aren’t all his sisters with us? Where then did this man get all these things?” And they took offense at him. But Jesus said to them, “A prophet is not without honor except in his own town and in his own home.” (Matthew 13:53-57)

Were any of the brothers and sisters of Jesus alive in 70 AD? What happened to them? The Romans would have been aware that some Jews believed Jesus was the King of Israel. Since Jesus was executed, they may have gone after His surviving relatives to prevent any of them from claiming to be the next Messiah. Is it possible the Romans arrested Jesus’ relatives and disposed of them during the anti-Jewish persecution launched by Vespasian? We know almost nothing about Jesus’ brothers and sisters, other than James.

Persecution of Jews and Christians Under Domitian

The second round of violent anti-Christian persecution came under the emperor Domitian, around 95-96 AD. Domitian was against all atheists, where an atheist was anyone who denied specifically the gods of Rome, regardless of other religious beliefs. Eventually, Domitian gave himself the title “Our Master and our God.” Many opposed him for that, including loyal Romans. It was normal for Romans to worship deceased emperors as gods, but not necessarily living emperors. Supposedly, the emperors became gods as they rose from the dead, but not while still living. In Roman History (book 67, chapter 5), Dio wrote

Even as early as this he was insisting upon being regarded as a god and took a huge pleasure in being called "master" and "god." These titles were used not merely orally but also in documents.

Domitian persecuted all who refused to worship him. Christians and Jews especially faced persecution for refusing to practice idolatry. Christians and Jews who refused emperor worship were executed, including members of Domitian’s own family.

Domitian was out to find and persecute the Jews. Suetonius was eyewitness to some of the anti-Jewish actions of those days. In The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, The Life of Domitian (paragraph 12), Suetonius wrote

I remember, when I was a youth, to have been present, when an old man, ninety years of age, had his person exposed to view in a very crowded court, in order that, on inspection, the procurator might satisfy himself whether he was circumcised.

Tacitus, Suetonius, and Dio wrote negatively about Domitian’s character and deeds. In the Agricola (chapter 42), Tacitus wrote

It is a principle of human nature to hate those whom we have injured; and Domitian was constitutionally inclined to anger, which was the more difficult to be averted, in proportion as it was the more disguised.

In The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, The Life of Domitian (chapter 3), Suetonius wrote

During some time, there was in his administration a strange mixture of virtue and vice, until at last his virtues themselves degenerated into vices; being, as we may reasonably conjecture concerning his character, inclined to avarice through want, and to cruelty through fear.

In Roman History (book 67, chapter 14), Dio wrote

During this period the road leading from Sinuessa to Puteoli was paved with stones. And the same year Domitian slew among many others Flavius Clemens the consul, though he was a cousin and had to wife Flavia Domitilla, who was also a relative of the emperor's. The complaint brought against them both was that of atheism, under which many others who drifted into Jewish ways were condemned. Some of these were killed and the remainder were at least deprived of their property.

Note Dio says Domitian condemned those who drifted into Jewish ways. However, that meant both Jewish and Christian ways, because Domitian considered Christians to be just a Jewish sect. He was really out to get the Jews, which included Christians, as far as he was concerned.

Dio further wrote

As a consequence of his cruelty the emperor was suspicious of all mankind and ceased now to put hopes of safety in either the freedmen or the prefects, whom he usually caused to be tried during their very term of office. Moreover, Epaphroditus, who belonged to Nero, he first drove out and then slew, censuring him for not having defended Nero; his object was by the vengeance that he took in this person's case to terrify his own freedmen long enough in advance to prevent their ever attempting a similar deed. It did him no good, however, for he became the object of a conspiracy in the following year and perished in the consulship of Gaius Valens (who died after holding the consular office in his ninetieth year) and of Gaius Antistius.

Thus Domitian was disposed of by assassination in 96 AD.

Initially, anti-Jewish and anti-Christian persecution under Domitian was brutal, but became somewhat less brutal over time, with victims having their properties confiscated, and sent to exile, instead of being executed. Bible scholars believe the apostle John was exiled to Patmos during this period.

Many Bible scholars believe Domitian is the beast (the Antichrist) described in the book of Revelation. Revelation contains references to the image of the beast. Historical records show that Domitian took idolatry to an exceptionally high level. He went above and beyond just making people worship his image as a god. His image had to worshipped as god over all, with death as the penalty for refusing to worship that way. Suetonius wrote about this extreme idolatry of Domitian. In The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, The Life of Domitian (paragraph 13), Suetonius wrote

With equal arrogance, when he dictated the form of a letter to be used by his procurators, he began it thus: “Our lord and god commands so and so;” whence it became a rule that no one should style him otherwise either in writing or speaking. He suffered no statues to be erected for him in the Capitol, unless they were of gold and silver, and of a certain weight.

Note the heights to which Domitian took his idolatry. He declared himself god over all (i.e. not just another god among many). He declared that statues of him had to be made of silver or gold. (Even Nero did not go that far. Nero was content with marble statues.) Finally, the statues of silver and gold had to be large enough! Thus Domitian decorated Rome with many large silver or gold “images of the beast.”

Domitian wanted to be worshipped as Divine Providence in human form (god incarnate?). He gave himself the titles of King, Savior, Son of (a) God, Image of God, and God made manifest. Do you see the striking resemblance between the titles Domitian gave to himself and the titles by which Christ is known? That makes Domitian look like the Antichrist.

After the assassination of Domitian, the Roman Senate declared Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor of Rome. In part 5 we examine the events in the reigns of the emperors Nerva through Commodus.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 5. From Nerva to Commodus

The Days of Nerva

Nerva became emperor in 96 AD. (Trivia: He was born in a place called Narnia. Does that name ring a bell?) Nerva was a retired general at the time, highly esteemed by the Romans. In his younger days he held several pagan priesthoods. He was given the status of praetor, an elected magistrate in charge of the administration of civil justice, with rank just below that of consul. He received honors and triumphal decorations from none other than Nero. Statues of Nerva were sculpted and placed in the imperial palace and the Roman Forum.

Suetonius wrote a very unflattering thing about Nerva and Domitian. In The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, The Life of Domitian (paragraph 1), Suetonius wrote about some act Domitian performed with Nerva.

Some, likewise, have said, that he prostituted himself to Nerva, who succeeded him.

In summary, Nerva was a pagan priest, a Roman praetor honored by Nero, a retired senior military commander, and possibly even someone who engaged in perverse sex. That appears to be a man you would expect to be hostile to Christians. He actually turned out to be a tolerant ruler who ended the persecution, at least while he was alive.

Nerva issued a broad amnesty to all who suffered persecution under Domitian, including Christians. Imprisoned Christians were released. Exiled Christians were allowed to return, including those sent to penal colonies. It was during this amnesty in the days of Nerva that the apostle John returned from exile at Patmos. After his return, John continued the type of works recorded in the book of Acts, and eventually died a natural death in Ephesus, where he is buried in an unknown grave.

An unknown ancient author wrote a book called On the Apostles and Disciples. The book was written pseudonymously in the name of the ancient Christian writer Hippolytus (c.170-c.235 AD). According to the author, 

John, again, in Asia, was banished by Domitian the king to the isle of Patmos, in which also he wrote his gospel and saw the apocalyptic vision; and in Trajan's time he fell asleep at Ephesus, where his remains were sought for, but could not be found.

That places John living into the second century AD.

Clement of Alexandria wrote about John’s return from exile. In Salvation of the Rich Man (paragraph 42), he wrote

And that you may be still more confident, that repenting thus truly there remains for you a sure hope of salvation, listen to a tale, which is not a tale but a narrative, handed down and committed to the custody of memory, about the apostle John. For when, on the tyrant’s death, he returned to Ephesus from the isle of Patmos, he went away, being invited, to the contiguous territories of the nations, here to appoint bishops, there to set in order whole churches, there to ordain such as were marked out by the Spirit.

The church leader Irenaeus (c.130-c.202 AD) also wrote about John’s return from exile. Irenaeus wrote Against Heresies, which as the title suggests, is a book refuting false teachings being spread in the church of his day. In book 2, chapter 22, paragraph 5, he states that John remained in Asia until the times of the next emperor, Trajan. That supports the account given by pseudo Hippolytus.

Nerva restored Rome’s economy after the excesses of Domitian. He had the gold and silver statues of Domitian melted down and turned into money. As mentioned in part 4, Domitian took idolatry to a new level. The mere production of money from the melted statues of Domitian was enough to improve the Roman economy. That certainly reveals there were many large and expensive “images of the beast” in Rome. Nerva did not allow people to make gold or silver statues of himself. Thus ended the extreme idolatry of Domitian.

In Roman History (book 68, chapter 1), Dio wrote

After Domitian, the Romans appointed Nerva Cocceius emperor. Because of the hatred felt for Domitian, his images, many of which were of silver and many of gold, were melted down; and from this source large amounts of money were obtained. The arches, too, of which a very great number were being erected to this one man, were torn down. Nerva also released all who were on trial for maiestas [i.e. the law of treason] and restored the exiles; moreover, he put to death all the slaves and the freedmen who had conspired against their masters and allowed that class of persons to lodge no complaint whatever against their masters; and no persons were permitted to accuse anybody of maiestas or of adopting the Jewish mode of life.

Nerva freed prisoners accused of treason by Domitian, and he recalled the exiles. He forbid people to accuse Romans of treason or of being Jews (i.e. of being Jews or Christians). He ended harsh taxation practices that Domitian had imposed on the Jews. He even executed Domitian’s informers.

Nerva implemented reforms. He returned confiscated property, allotted land to the very poor, and sold much of his personal property along with luxury items from the imperial palace. Nerva used the proceeds to fund the treasury. He also cut taxes and even abolished many pagan sacrifices and pagan spectacles.

A group of soldiers loyal to Domitian conspired to murder Nerva. Their plot failed, and they were executed, some quite ignominiously.

Both church and synagogue enjoyed a time of peace under Nerva. (Contrary to what some history books say, Constantine was not the first emperor to tolerate Christianity.) But Nerva was old and his health was failing. He appointed Trajan, a Spanish born Roman general, to be his successor. Trajan had run a very successful military campaign in Germany. The appointment by Nerva was his reward. Nerva died after ruling Rome for only one year, ten months and nine days. Trajan became the first non-Italian emperor of Rome.

The Days of Trajan

Trajan (ruled 98-117 AD) started a new round of persecution of the church. He outlawed Christianity throughout the entire Roman Empire. Christians who refused to renounce their faith were executed. Whereas the persecution under Nero was mainly a local extermination of Christians in and near Rome (with less impact in the provinces), the persecution under Trajan was widespread throughout Roman civilization. It was the first empire-wide persecution of the saints. However, Christians were not sought out for arrest on a large scale. Although there were martyrdoms, the persecution did not attain the horror of the days of Nero.

Unlike Nero, Trajan was more interested in enforcing anti-Christian laws by “legal” means rather than by mass murder, as suggested by letters exchanged between Trajan and Pliny the Younger (61-c.113 AD), governor of the province of Bithynia in Asia Minor. Pliny wrote to Trajan seeking guidance on how to deal with Christians. In his letters (book 10, letter 96), Pliny wrote

…  They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so… Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deaconesses. But I discovered nothing else but a perverse and extravagant superstition.

Note Pliny admitted Christians sang to Christ as to a god. That is early evidence that Christians believed in the deity of Christ. Skeptics claim the deity of Christ was fabricated by the church hundreds of years after the lifetime of Christ. However, this letter of Pliny is early second century AD proof that the saints believed in the deity of Christ.

Note also that Pliny called Christianity a perverse and extravagant superstition. The apostle Paul wrote

For the message of the cross is foolishness to those who are perishing, but to us who are being saved it is the power of God. (1 Corinthians 1:18)

Pliny’s slanderous claim that Christianity is a perverse and extravagant superstition is a great example of what Paul meant. Even so, Pliny also admitted the Christians he interrogated were not criminals. He almost seemed to imply they were good and decent people. Nevertheless, Pliny was an obedient servant of the emperor. He would do to the Christians whatever Trajan told him to do.

Trajan’s reply to Pliny’s letter is found in book 10, letter 97 of Pliny’s letters.

You observed proper procedure, my dear Pliny, in sifting the cases of those who had been denounced to you as Christians. For it is not possible to lay down any general rule to serve as a kind of fixed standard. They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and really proves it--that is, by worshiping our gods--even though he was under suspicion in the past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. But anonymously posted accusations ought to have no place in any prosecution. For this is both a dangerous kind of precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age.

Note Trajan specifically said Christians were not to be sought out. However, if found, they were to be punished (i.e. executed), unless they did that one thing no true saint would ever do, which is worship pagan gods. Trajan prohibited prosecutions based on anonymously posted accusations. He even called that type of prosecution a dangerous kind of precedent. This letter of Trajan to Pliny suggests Trajan did not want a bloodthirsty type of persecution as in the days of Nero. It appears he wanted the church to go “underground” and remain out of sight and out of sound. But obedient saints served under the Great Commission. Jesus commanded

Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age. (Matthew 28:19-20)

Obedience to Christ inevitably put Christians in conflict with pagan Rome. Saints preached to the people, were found out, arrested, tried, sentenced, and executed, unless they were willing to renounce their faith.

The Days of Hadrian

Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD) was the next emperor after Trajan. Early in his reign, he continued the persecution that started under Trajan. Quadratus of Athens, believed to be the first Christian apologist, was martyred in 129 AD during the continuation of persecution from the days of Trajan into the early years of Hadrian. Quadratus wrote a discourse defending the Christian faith, and had it delivered to Hadrian. It may have cost Quadratus his very life. Eusebius cited a writing of Quadratus in Ecclesiastical History (book 4, chapter 3, paragraph 2).

He himself reveals the early date at which he lived in the following words: “But the works of our Savior were always present, for they were genuine:—those that were healed, and those that were raised from the dead, who were seen not only when they were healed and when they were raised, but were also always present; and not merely while the Savior was on earth, but also after his death, they were alive for quite a while, so that some of them lived even to our day.” Such then was Quadratus.

Hadrian was a relatively tolerant ruler, and apparently decided to extend that tolerance to Christians. At some point, he relented from persecuting Christians, possibly influenced by the Greek philosopher Aristides of Athens. Aristides was a former pagan who converted to Christianity. He wrote a letter defending the Christian faith, and had it delivered to Hadrian during the emperor’s visit to Athens.

Anti-Christian riots broke out in western Asia Minor. The provincial governor sought Hadrian’s direction on how to deal with the Christians. Hadrian decreed that Christians could be brought to trial only for specific illegal acts. Being a Christian was not sufficient reason for arrest. He forbade unsubstantiated accusations against Christians, and threatened severe punishment for those who brought up false charges against Christians. Furthermore, Hadrian directed that only a Proconsul had the authority to try a capital case. Christians finally had the right to plead their case before a Proconsul. However, anti-Christian laws were not abolished; they simply were not enforced. Officially, Christianity remained an illegal cult.

An example of Hadrian’s instructions regarding Christians is contained in a letter he wrote to the Proconsul of Asia, Minucius Fundanus, cited in Eusebius’ Ecclesiastical History (book 4, chapter 9).

To Minucius Fundanus. I have received an epistle, written to me by Serenius Granianus, a most illustrious man, whom you have succeeded. It does not seem right to me that the matter should be passed by without examination, lest the men be harassed and opportunity be given to the informers for practicing villainy. If, therefore, the inhabitants of the province can clearly sustain this petition against the Christians so as to give answer in a court of law, let them pursue this course alone, but let them not have resort to men’s petitions and outcries. For it is far more proper, if any one wishes to make an accusation, that you should examine into it. If any one therefore accuses them and shows that they are doing anything contrary to the laws, do you pass judgment according to the heinousness of the crime. But, by Hercules! if any one bring an accusation through mere calumny, decide in regard to his criminality, and see to it that you inflict punishment.

Hadrian ushered in a brief period of relative peace for Christians throughout the empire. However, conditions in Judaea got very violent. Roman legions suppressed a second Jewish revolt in Judaea, with much brutality, accompanied by great destruction of synagogues and churches in the land of Israel. The devastation brought upon Israel was greater than the devastation of 70 AD. That was Hadrian’s big black mark on history. Generally, historians remember him as a capable and tolerant ruler.

New Rounds of Persecution Under Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius

Antoninus (ruled 138-161 AD) was the next emperor after Hadrian. His reign was relatively peaceful, and the Roman economy was strong. He never invaded another country. He did not persecute the Jews, and is believed to have had a leading rabbi as a close personal friend.

Antoninus instituted several legal reforms. He introduced the principle that accused persons are not to be treated as guilty before their trial. (Sound familiar? Presumed innocent until proven guilty? That is common in our contemporary western culture. It was uncommon in antiquity.) A slave could not be killed by his master without first having a trial. Antoninus restricted the use of torture. He forbade the selling of female slaves into prostitution after their contract had expired. So far, it sounds like Antoninus was a humane and tolerant ruler. Unfortunately, he was devoted to the pagan religion of Rome. He was known as Antoninus Pius, i.e. Antoninus the religious one. He started another round of persecution of Christians. Polycarp was probably the best known martyr of that era. He was burned alive after refusing to curse Christ and swear by Caesar.

One may expect Antoninus to have been tolerant of Christians. The good things he did suggest he had a humane character. Contrast Antoninus with Nerva. Nerva was a pagan priest and a senior military commander who used to serve Nero. After becoming emperor, he could have imposed a harsh military dictatorship and could have continued persecuting the saints, but he did not, as we saw above. Antoninus appeared to be a humane ruler, yet he turned against the saints and restarted violent persecution. Nerva and Antoninus are surprises one encounters while studying the age of martyrs. Some bad emperors persecuted the saints, and some “good” emperors also persecuted the saints. Some bad emperors actually tolerated the saints, as we will see below, and some good emperors tolerated the saints. It appears there is no direct relation between how well an emperor governed and how he treated the saints.

Around 155 AD, the Christian apologist and teacher Justin (c.100-c.165 AD) wrote a letter to Antoninus denouncing the persecution of Christians. The letter is known as The First Apology of Justin. It contained a passionate plea for justice. In chapter 1 he wrote

To the Emperor Titus Aelius Adrianus Antoninus Pius Augustus Caesar, and to his son Verissimus the Philosopher, and to Lucius the Philosopher, the natural son of Caesar, and the adopted son of Pius, a lover of learning, and to the sacred Senate, with the whole People of the Romans, I, Justin, the son of Priscus and grandson of Bacchius, natives of Flavia Neapolis in Palestine, present this address and petition in behalf of those of all nations who are unjustly hated and wantonly abused, myself being one of them.

In chapter 2 he wrote

… For we have come, not to flatter you by this writing, nor please you by our address, but to beg that you pass judgment, after an accurate and searching investigation, not flattered by prejudice or by a desire of pleasing superstitious men, nor induced by irrational impulse or evil rumors which have long been prevalent, to give a decision which will prove to be against yourselves. For as for us, we reckon that no evil can be done us, unless we be convicted as evildoers or be proved to be wicked men; and you, you can kill, but not hurt us.

Those are bold words. They probably cost Justin his life. He was martyred under the rule of Marcus Aurelius, the next emperor after Antoninus. Historians remember Justin as Justin Martyr.

Marcus Aurelius (ruled 161-180 AD) was the next emperor after Antoninus. He intensified the persecution of Christians. He is another example of an emperor who governed well, but who persecuted the church, like Antoninus. Christians had become very unpopular by then. They were blamed for famines, floods, pestilence, and wars, since they would not worship the pagan gods that “protected” communities. Christians were accused of immorality, unnatural vice, practicing the occult, and of being a dangerous revolutionary force. Persecution intensified. Fierce persecution broke out in various regions. Marcus Aurelius issued new decrees making it easier to denounce Christians (the opposite of what Hadrian did). Aside from the violence against the saints, historians remember Marcus Aurelius as an illustrious and capable ruler who governed during the golden age of imperial Rome.

The Days of Commodus

When Marcus Aurelius died, his son Commodus (ruled 180-192 AD) became emperor. Historians remember Commodus as a terrible emperor. His reign had considerable political strife. He was believed to have grown insane while emperor, eventually turning megalomaniacal. He was cruel and murderous. He was obsessed with athletics, and wanted people to think of him as Hercules. Generally, historians believe the rule of Commodus was the beginning of a long and irreversible decline of Rome. It is said that under Commodus, Rome went from being an empire of gold to an empire of rust.

Commodus appears to have been a bad guy. Did you watch the movie Gladiator, starring Russell Crowe, which was released in 2000? If so, do you remember the emperor in the movie, who happened to be the main bad guy? That was Commodus. One would expect a bad guy and terrible emperor like Commodus to have been an intense enemy of the saints. Surprise! Commodus stopped the persecution of Christians. Commodus had a mistress who was sympathetic to the Christians. She persuaded him to end the persecution. Dio wrote about this in Roman History (book 73, chapter 5).

There was a certain Marcia, the mistress of Quadratus (one of the men slain at this time), and Eclectus, his cubicularius; the latter became the cubicularius of Commodus also, and the former, first the emperor's mistress and later the wife of Eclectus, and she saw them also perish by violence. The tradition is that she greatly favored the Christians and rendered them many kindnesses, inasmuch as she could do anything with Commodus.

(Note: The Quadratus mentioned above is not to be confused with the Quadratus who was martyred in the days of Hadrian. The cubicularius is the official in charge of sleeping and living quarters.)

Dio lived during the rule of Commodus, which makes him a credible source on the events of the time.

Who was this Marcia mentioned above? Little is known about her. Historians have speculated quite a bit about Marcia. Some say she was a secret Christian. Could she have been someone like an Esther to Commodus? Perhaps she was not, but maybe had friends who were Christians, and she did not want them to get hurt? What were her motives? It is also written that she had several ex-boyfriends and ex-husbands who died under suspicious circumstances.

Commodus was assassinated. In the aftermath, Rome descended into chaos. A new emperor arose and started a new imperial dynasty. He also started another round of persecution. In part 6 we examine the treatment of Christians under the new dynasty.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 6. The Severan Dynasty

By the dawn of the third century AD, the church had endured several rounds of persecution. Many fell away. Even so, the church continued to grow, especially in the provinces far from Rome, where persecution was less intense. Officially, Christianity remained an illegal religion.

The church was maturing. The New Covenant writings, which we now call the New Testament, were being accepted by the church as sacred scripture, equal in authority to the Hebrew Bible (i.e. the Old Testament). Christians were organized in communities governed by bishops, who remained in contact with each other by letter, somewhat like an empire-wide network. The church began to acquire property. Missionary work had diminished during the second century AD, but increased toward the start of the third century.

As the church grew in the provinces, tension between Christians and pagans increased. A new imperial dynasty arose in this environment.

Septimius Severus (ruled 193–211) became the next emperor after the demise of Commodus. He ushered in a new dynasty, known as the Severan dynasty, which governed the Roman Empire for a little more than a generation. Septimius started a new round of persecution. In 202 he issued an edict that outlawed conversions to Christianity and Judaism. He specifically outlawed baptism.

From about 202 to 210, a wave of anti-Christian violence broke out in Carthage, Alexandria, Rome, and Corinth. New converts were martyred, but established Christian leadership was not severely impacted. Anti-Christian hostility was directed more toward new Christians than against those who had been Christians for some time. This was probably driven by a deliberate imperial strategy to make the church wither away and die from lack of sustaining membership. After Septimius’ death, persecution ended for a season. Subsequent Severan emperors were relatively tolerant of Christians.

Caracalla (sole ruler 211–217) became the next emperor. He was a ruthless and murderous ruler. He expanded the use of torture to include Roman citizens. (Recall that in the first century AD, the Romans could not flog the apostle Paul because he was a Roman citizen [Acts 22:25-29].) Caracalla extended Roman citizenship to nearly all freemen throughout the empire, so he could collect more taxes (citizens were taxed at a higher rate than non-citizens). Caracalla sounds like a bad guy, but the church was not persecuted during his rule. He is another example of a bad emperor that you might expect would persecute the saints, but that was not the case.

Caracalla was assassinated, and Elagabalus (ruled 218–222) became the next emperor. Elagabalus was a dedicated pagan. He replaced worship of the chief Roman god Jupiter with worship of the sun god Sol Invictus. Elagabalus had several wives and two “husbands.” Not much is known about his disposition toward Christians.

Alexander Severus (ruled 222–235) became the last Severan emperor. He was a tolerant ruler who respected many faiths, including Christianity. His mother Julia Mamaea was tutored by the Christian scholar and apologist Origen (c.184-c.253). Origen may have influenced Julia, who in turn may have influenced the religious views of her son. (Origen was imprisoned and tortured during a new round of persecution under a later emperor. He died shortly after release from prison.) The first known church building was built in Dura-Europos on the Euphrates River during the days of Alexander. The ruins of the Dura-Europos church contain some of the oldest known Christian paintings. Alexander sought to make peace with Germany by bribing the German army to surrender. That did not go well with the Roman military. Roman troops assassinated Alexander and his mother Julia. Thus ended the Severan dynasty.

Maximinus Thrax (235-238) became the next emperor. He started another round of persecution. Maximinus ordered that church leaders be put to death. His rule was short. In 238 he was assassinated by rebellious Roman troops. After Maximinus’ death, the church had a brief period of peace and growth.

In part 7 we examine the intense persecution under the emperor Decius, and the events in the days of the emperors Valerian and Gallienus.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 7. From Decius to Gallienus

The Days of Decius

After the demise of Maximinus Thrax, the church enjoyed a period of relative peace for a little more than a decade. The church continued to grow. But in 249, Decius (ruled 249-251) became emperor. He launched a large scale persecution of the church.

The Roman Empire was in decline. A new wave of barbarian attacks menaced the empire. Rome suffered serious military defeats. Decius believed it was not enough to fight the attacking armies that were menacing Rome. He believed the subjects of the empire had to devote themselves to the deified emperors of the past. In essence, he was trusting the future of the empire to Rome’s pagan religion, including the cult of the emperors.

Religious fervor arose throughout the empire. The people gathered in large numbers in pagan temples to besiege the gods of Rome for deliverance. Decius issued an edict requiring every subject of the empire to worship the gods of Rome. This set the stage for another round of persecution.

Patriotic fervor also arose during those days. That also helped set the stage for persecution, since Christians generally discouraged military service.

Under Decius, Christians were not actually required to renounce their faith if they agreed to also worship the gods of Rome. A Christian could worship Jesus as another god among many, but could not worship Jesus exclusively. Many Christians complied, but many others refused to bow down to the state-imposed idolatry. The government of the city of Rome targeted Christian leaders. Hundreds of local Christians were beheaded, burned, or fed to wild beasts. Outside Rome, pagan mobs attacked common Christians. There was particularly strong mob violence against Christians in Alexandria. 

Use of libelli was common in the days of Decius. The libelli were documents that certified an individual had sacrificed to the gods of Rome. If suspected of being a Christian, a subject was brought before a magistrate. The subject was required to sacrifice to the gods of Rome in the presence of the magistrate and witnesses. (Note how the commands from the Roman authorities are diametrically opposed to the commands given to believers in Acts 15:29, 21:25, 1 Corinthians 10:19-20, 12:2, and 1 John 5:21.) Upon performing this act of idolatry, the subject was issued a libellus by the local Sacrificial Commission, signed by the magistrate. The libellus was essentially a Certificate of Sacrifice. It cleared the subject of suspicion of disobeying the religion of the empire. Possession of a libellus was proof to the Roman authorities that the subject was not a Christian, or was a Christian who complied with the edict to worship the gods of Rome.

A few libelli survive to this day. One particular libellus from the year 250 says

To those in charge of the sacrifices of the village Theadelphia, from Aurelia Bellias, daughter of Peteres, and her daughter, Kapinis. We have always been constant in sacrificing to the gods, and now too, in your presence, in accordance with the regulations, I have poured libations and sacrificed and tasted the offerings, and I ask you to certify this for us below. May you continue to prosper. We, Aurelius Serenus and Aurelius Hermas, saw you sacrificing. I, Hermas, certify. The first year of the Emperor Caesar Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius Pius Felix Augustus.

Note the subject was required to eat of the sacrifice. Do you remember what Paul said about eating meat sacrificed to idols? Basically, the way the Roman authorities trapped Christians was to try to make them disobey their God-given commandments. Those who caved were freed. Those who refused were marked for death. A photograph of the actual libellus is provided below.

Persecution in the days of Decius was intense and widespread, but the days of Decius were cut short. He was killed in battle fighting the Goths and their allies in 251. That practically ended this latest round of persecution.

Persecution in the Days of Valerian

At this point in time, the Roman Empire was imploding. More invasions menaced the empire. Plagues and civil strife were widespread in the provinces. In this environment, Valerian (ruled 253-260) became emperor.

Valerian blamed Christians for the calamities afflicting the empire. Christians were accused of being enemies of the gods of Rome, conspirators, and members of an illegal cult. In 257 he ordered Christian clergy to sacrifice to the gods of Rome or be exiled. In 258 he ordered the execution of Christian leaders. Christian properties were confiscated and Christian tenants of imperial estates were condemned to slavery in the mines. Christian gatherings were forbidden. Christians were still allowed to worship Jesus, but only in private. (Compare to Hebrews 10:23-25. Note a familiar pattern: Christians were ordered to disobey specific God-given instructions. It seems the persecutors knew exactly what chains to pull when they went after Christians. Who do you think enticed the persecutors to try that approach?)

A war with Persia brought about the demise of Valerian. He was captured by the Persians and remained their prisoner for the rest of his life. Thus ended the days of Valerian.

Better Days Under Gallienus

Gallienus was co-emperor with Valerian from 253-260, and then became sole emperor in 261 after the Persians seized Valerian. He was sole ruler from 261-268. Gallienus issued the first official edict of toleration of Christians in 261. (Note as previously mentioned above, Constantine was not the first emperor to tolerate Christianity, and was not the first to issue an official edict of toleration, contrary to what you might have read in a history book.) Gallienus lifted the edicts against Christians and recognized Christianity as a legal religion. He ordered that properties seized from Christians be returned to them.

Eusebius wrote about the favor Gallienus extended to Christians. In Ecclesiastical History (book 7, chapter 13), Eusebius cited a letter written by Gallienus, addressed to several church bishops.

The Emperor Caesar Publius Licinius Gallienus Pius Felix Augustus, to Dionysius, Pinnas, Demetrius, and the other bishops. I have ordered the bounty of my gift to be declared through all the world, that they may depart from the places of religious worship. And for this purpose you may use this copy of my rescript, that no one may molest you. And this which you are now enabled lawfully to do, has already for a long time been conceded by me. Therefore Aurelius Cyrenius, who is the chief administrator of affairs, will observe this ordinance which I have given.

According to Eusebius, Gallienus issued another decree addressed to other bishops, permitting them to retake possession of church cemeteries.

There is the question of Gallienus’ motives for extending favor to the Christians. Some scholars believe his real motive was to get Christians in the eastern provinces to enlist in the army and help fight off Persian invaders coming from the east. Regardless of whether Gallienus’ motives were sincere or insincere, the church certainly enjoyed better days under him.

The next forty years were a period of relative calm for the church. There was rapid church growth, with some minor rounds of persecution along the way. As the Roman Empire continued to decline, people sought consolation in religion, and found more of it Christianity than in paganism. Furthermore, wealthy and powerful people were joining the church. Christianity was no longer just a religion for slaves and the lowly. The church built costly cathedrals during this period. Those good days did not last long.

In part 8 we examine the persecution of extermination launched in the days of Gallerius and Diocletian.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 8. The Great Persecution

The Roman Empire continued to decline at the end of the third century and crossing over into the fourth century. Diocletian and Galerius became emperors in that era. They would usher in a persecution of extermination of Christians like no other. Historians call it The Great Persecution.

The Roman Empire split into western and eastern halves. Diocletian and Galerius established a tetrarchy consisting of an emperor and co-emperor ruling in the west, and an emperor and co-emperor ruling in the east. Both Diocletian and Galerius were part of the tetrarchy. (Diocletian co-ruled from 286-305, and Galerius co-ruled from 293-311.) The tetrarchy ruled with absolute authority.

Galerius was very anti-Christian. He saw the Christians as opponents to absolute rule. He prodded Diocletian to start another round of persecution of Christians. In 303, the tetrarchy ordered the destruction of all Christian churches, the burning of all Christian books, the dissolution of all Christian congregations, the confiscation of church properties, the exclusion of Christians from public office, and the death penalty for anyone caught attending a Christian assembly. The mere possession of a Christian book was sufficient reason to be sentenced to death.

A fire broke out in the eastern imperial palace at Nicomedia (in modern day Turkey). The governing authorities blamed the Christians for the fire. (Does that remind you of Nero?)

Diocletian ordered provincial magistrates to hunt down Christians aggressively. (Note how that is the opposite of what Trajan ordered during the persecution he launched, as we saw in his letter to Governor Pliny.) Diocletian also ordered that imprisoned Christians be freed on condition that they worship the gods of Rome. But if they refused, they were to be tortured until they complied. If they still would not comply under torture, then they were to be executed. Many Christians were executed by fire, sword, or drowning in the sea. The Great Persecution was especially strong in the eastern provinces and Egypt.

Eusebius, who lived in that era, wrote about persecution in the days of Diocletian. In Ecclesiastical History (book 8, chapter 2, paragraph 4), he wrote

… It was in the nineteenth year of the reign of Diocletian, in the month Dystrus, called March by the Romans, when the feast of the Savior's passion was near at hand, that royal edicts were published everywhere, commanding that the churches be leveled to the ground and the Scriptures be destroyed by fire, and ordering that those who held places of honor be degraded, and that the household servants, if they persisted in the profession of Christianity, be deprived of freedom.

In The Book of Martyrs, Eusebius described the persecution perpetrated from 303 to 311. He witnessed some of it and personally knew some of the martyrs. Churches were torn down. Many Christians who refused to worship the idols of Rome were slain by beheading, burning, feeding to wild beasts, or thrown into the sea from cliffs. Some martyrs were denied burial, and their dead bodies were fed to wild beasts, dogs, and carnivorous birds. Others were tortured by scourging, scraping, the rack, and searing. Many were maimed or mutilated. Some had one or both eyes gouged out or their tongues cut out. Many were condemned to slavery in the mines. Some were forced into gladiatorial fighting.

By that time in history there were many Christians in the empire. They fought back, especially in the provinces. There was open revolt. Diocletian abdicated in 305, but the persecution continued under the direction of Galerius for several more years, with great martyrdom.

In 311, Galerius was sick and dying. Prodded by his wife, he issued an edict of toleration in Serdica (modern day Sofia, Bulgaria), known as the Edict of Serdica, and the persecution stopped for a while (yet another example of an edict of toleration issued before the rise of Constantine). The text of the edict is provided below.

Among other arrangements which we are always accustomed to make for the prosperity and welfare of the republic, we had desired formerly to bring all things into harmony with the ancient laws and public order of the Romans, and to provide that even the Christians who had left the religion of their fathers should come back to reason; since, indeed, the Christians themselves, for some reason, had followed such a caprice and had fallen into such a folly that they would not obey the institutes of antiquity, which perchance their own ancestors had first established; but at their own will and pleasure, they would thus make laws unto themselves which they should observe and would collect various peoples in diverse places in congregations. Finally when our law had been promulgated to the effect that they should conform to the institutes of antiquity, many were subdued by the fear of danger, many even suffered death. And yet since most of them persevered in their determination, and we saw that they neither paid the reverence and awe due to the gods nor worshipped the God of the Christians, in view of our most mild clemency and the constant habit by which we are accustomed to grant indulgence to all, we thought that we ought to grant our most prompt indulgence also to these, so that they may again be Christians and may hold their conventicles, provided they do nothing contrary to good order. But we shall tell the magistrates in another letter what they ought to do.

Wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes.

This edict is published at Nicomedia on the day before the Kalends of May, in our eighth consulship and the second of Maximinus.

Note that even in the wording of the edict Galerius still attacked Christians by accusing them of caprice and folly. But at least they were no longer rounded up and hauled away for torture and execution. (I do not know what Galerius meant by nor worshipped the God of the Christians. Perhaps he meant that Christians did not sacrifice to a Christian idol? If so, it is interesting that a pagan like Galerius took note of that.) Copies of the Edict of Serdica are on display at Saint Sofia Church, in Sofia, Bulgaria, in three languages: Latin, Bulgarian, and Greek.

In part 9 we examine the rise of Constantine and the beginning of a new era for the church.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 9. The Rise of Constantine

By the early fourth century, popular opinion was turning in favor of the Christians. Although many fell away during persecutions, the church continued to grow. Christian martyrdom actually attracted people to the Faith. People wanted to know what was so good about the Faith that it was worth enduring torture and death. They were attracted by the simplicity and moral teachings of Christianity. People rejected the pagan gods because of the cruelties perpetrated in their names. In some provinces, the Christian community became quite large, though still a minority.

The Days of Maximinus

Valerius Maximinus replaced Diocletian in the tetrarchy upon the latter’s abdication. From 305-310, Maximinus co-ruled with Galerius in the east. After Galerius’ death, he continued to co-rule in the tetrarchy with Licinius, Constantine, and Maxentius. Maximinus and Licinius ruled as co-emperors in the east until 313.

Rome continued to decline. The divided Roman Empire had plunged into civil war after the reigns of Diocletian and Galerius. Maximinus blamed the Christians for the empire’s strife, and launched a round of brutal persecution in the east. He had anti-Christian decrees inscribed on brazen pillars in the cities. In Ecclesiastical History (book 9, chapter 7), Eusebius cited at length a rescript from Maximinus addressed to a local governor, engraved on a pillar in Tyre. Among other things, the rescript spoke very slanderously against Christians. The rescript called Christians

“… adherents of that execrable vanity…”

It blamed Christians for the ongoing strife of the empire.

“… misfortunes have taken place on account of the destructive error of the empty vanity of those impious men, when it prevailed in their souls, and, we may almost say, weighed down the whole world with shame."

The instruction issued against Christians was

“But if they still persist in their execrable vanity, let them, as you have desired, be driven far away from your city and territory, that thus, in accordance with your praiseworthy zeal in this matter, your city, being freed from every pollution and impiety, may, according to its native disposition, attend to the sacred rites of the immortal gods with becoming reverence.”

Eusebius went on to say

This was published against us in all the provinces, depriving us of every hope of good, at least from men; so that, according to that divine utterance, "If it were possible, even the elect would have stumbled" at these things.

But even in the midst of famine, pestilence, war, and violent persecution, the church continued to do good works. Eusebius wrote

For they alone in the midst of such ills showed their sympathy and humanity by their deeds. Every day some continued caring for and burying the dead, for there were multitudes who had no one to care for them; others collected in one place those who were afflicted by the famine, throughout the entire city, and gave bread to them all; so that the thing became noised abroad among all men, and they glorified the God of the Christians; and, convinced by the facts themselves, confessed that they alone were truly pious and religious.

Civil war raged on. Constantine emerged triumphant in the west. He had many Christians serving in his army. Licinius defeated Maximinus in the east. The defeated Maximinus issued an edict of toleration granting Christians the rights of assembling, of building churches, and the restoration of their confiscated properties (yet another example of an edict of toleration that preceded Constantine). Maximinus died shortly afterward in 313 from a terrible disease. (Does that remind you of Galerius, who issued the Edict of Serdica while he was near death?) In the aftermath of Maximinus’ defeat, Licinius became undisputed ruler of the east. Constantine ruled in the west.

The Edict of Milan

Constantine and Licinius issued together the Edict of Milan in 313, which extended toleration to all religions, and ordered the return of Christian properties seized during the recent round of persecution. Some excerpts from the edict are provided below.

When we, Constantine and Licinius, Emperors, met at Milan in conference concerning the welfare and security of the realm, we decided that of the things that are of profit to all mankind, the worship of God ought rightly to be our first and chiefest care, and that it was right that Christians and all others should have freedom to follow the kind of religion they favored; so that the God who dwells in heaven might be propitious to us and to all under our rule.

We therefore announce that, notwithstanding any provisions concerning the Christians in our former instructions, all who choose that religion are to be permitted to continue therein, without any let or hindrance, and are not to be in any way troubled or molested.

Moreover, concerning the Christians, we before gave orders with respect to the places set apart for their worship. It is now our pleasure that all who have bought such places should restore them to the Christians, without any demand for payment.

You are to use your utmost diligence in carrying out these orders on behalf of the Christians. … So shall that divine favor which we have already enjoyed, in affairs of the greatest moment, continue to grant us success, and thus secure the happiness of the realm.

Over time, Licinius became envious of Constantine. Eventually, Constantine and Licinius went to war with each other. Once again, the empire was plunged into civil war. Constantine triumphed in most of Roman Europe. Licinius retreated to the east and started a new round of persecution of Christians in Egypt and Asia. (I find this rather stunning considering he had previously co-issued the Edict of Milan with Constantine.)

At first, the new round of persecution was not violent, but it became violent and intense over time. Licinius expelled all Christians from his household. He ordered soldiers to sacrifice to the gods of Rome, or lose their military honors. Church bishops were arrested. People were not allowed to bring food to prisoners. Churches were closed or burned. There were executions of Christians. Some were carved up and fed to the fish of the sea. Many saints fled the cities and found refuge in the fields, deserts, forests, and mountains.

Constantine took his army east to help the persecuted Christians. By 323, Constantine emerged as undisputed ruler of the entire Roman Empire. Licinius was captured and executed.

A Dark Side to Constantine

Constantine was an autocratic ruler who seized control of an overwhelmingly pagan empire by military might. He allowed his wife and eldest son to die for treason. He continued to perform pagan rituals expected of the emperor as High Priest of the Roman state. He restored pagan temples. During the dedication of Constantinople, the new capital of the eastern Roman Empire, he employed both Christian and pagan rites. It appears he used the organization of Christian bishops and priests to advance the political causes of pacification and unification (i.e. he possibly had ulterior motives in befriending church leadership). He got involved in church disputes. For example, he exiled Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria over disagreements on who could be admitted to the church. (Athanasius was instrumental in establishing the final Canon of the New Testament. He was the first to list together the twenty-seven books of our New Testament.)

A particularly dark deed of Constantine was that he set the stage for historic antisemitism and persecution of Jews by the Christian church. In an Easter letter addressed to the churches, he wrote

And truly, in the first place, it seemed to everyone a most unworthy thing that we should follow the custom of the Jews in the celebration of this most holy solemnity, who, polluted wretches! having stained their hands with a nefarious crime, are justly blinded in their minds. It is fit, therefore, that, rejecting the practice of this people, we should perpetuate to all future ages the celebration of this rite in a more legitimate order, which we have kept from the first day of our Lord’s passion even to the present time. Let us then have nothing in common with the most hostile rabble of the Jews.

That was a most terrible thing to say to the churches. I am sure you know the horrible atrocities perpetrated against Jews throughout history by some professing Christians. But that is another story.

Good Acts of Emperor Constantine

Constantine also did many good things. He ordered the Roman governor at Carthage to restore to the church all confiscated church property, regardless of its present owner. He promised funds to the bishop of Carthage and assured him of protection from disruptive elements. He granted Christian ministers the same tax exemption that pagan priests enjoyed.

Constantine took measures to improve the lives of the underclass of Roman society. He enacted improvements to the treatment of prisoners and slaves. He ended gladiator fighting as punishment for crimes. He abolished crucifixion. (The Romans considered crucifixion to be the cruelest and most hideous form of execution.) Constantine sought to restore marriage and the family.

One especially noteworthy thing is that Constantine ruled that Christians could keep abandoned children that they found. It was an acceptable practice in ancient Greek and Roman society for parents to abandon their unwanted newborn children, as long as they did so in a public place. Then anyone could claim and keep the unwanted newborn. But if no one claimed the child, the child was allowed to die from exposure. Prior to Constantine, Christians were not allowed to rescue abandoned children. Christian apologist Justin Martyr wrote about the practice of abandoning newborns in The First Apology of Justin (Guilt of Exposing Children, chapter 27).

But as for us, we have been taught that to expose newly-born children is the part of wicked men; and this we have been taught lest we should do any one an injury, and lest we should sin against God, first, because we see that almost all so exposed (not only the girls, but also the males) are brought up to prostitution. And as the ancients are said to have reared herds of oxen, or goats, or sheep, or grazing horses, so now we see you rear children only for this shameful use; and for this pollution a multitude of females and hermaphrodites, and those who commit unmentionable iniquities, are found in every nation. And you receive the hire of these, and duty and taxes from them, whom you ought to exterminate from your realm. And any one who uses such persons, besides the godless and infamous and impure intercourse, may possibly be having intercourse with his own child, or relative, or brother. And there are some who prostitute even their own children and wives, and some are openly mutilated for the purpose of sodomy; and they refer these mysteries to the mother of the gods, and along with each of those whom you esteem gods there is painted a serpent, a great symbol and mystery. Indeed, the things which you do openly and with applause, as if the divine light were overturned and extinguished, these you lay to our charge; which, in truth, does no harm to us who shrink from doing any such things, but only to those who do them and bear false witness against us.

Constantine built many churches in Constantinople and elsewhere. He eventually banned idol worship in Constantinople. He gave to charities. He made Sunday a public holiday.

Constantine was baptized a few days before his death in 337. Officially, he became the first Christian emperor of Rome, and ushered in a line of Christian emperors. But like so many mighty men of history, Constantine needs to be judged by both his good and bad works.

After Constantine, there was one final round of persecution. Julian became co-emperor in 355. He rejected Christianity, and tried to bring back Roman pagan practices. He turned against the church, and sought to drive Christians out of government. However, unlike previous persecutors, he did not seek the destruction of Christianity. It appears he was content to keep Christians out of government as opposed to simply wiping them out. He was the last pagan emperor of Rome. Julian died from wounds battling Persian forces. (Sound familiar?) History remembers him as Julian the Apostate.

In part 10 we examine the fate of the apostles.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 10. The Fate of the Apostles

The lives of the apostles bear witness to the sincerity of their unswerving faith, even unto death. While many believers fell away during the years of persecution, there is no record of any apostle recanting his faith. While other faiths also have many sincere martyrs, the martyrs of Christianity remain set apart. Unlike the martyrs of other faiths, the apostles died for their sincere belief that they actually saw the resurrected Christ.

The epistle of Clement of Rome (c.35-99 AD) to the church at Corinth is the earliest known writing on the martyrdom of Peter and Paul. This is a Christian epistle written outside the Bible, near the end of the first century AD, within living memory of the events described. Clement was a companion of Paul and is mentioned in the New Testament (Philippians 4:3). In 1 Clement 5 he wrote

But not to dwell upon ancient examples, let us come to the most recent spiritual heroes. Let us take the noble examples furnished in our own generation. Through envy and jealousy, the greatest and most righteous pillars [of the Church] have been persecuted and put to death. Let us set before our eyes the illustrious apostles. Peter, through unrighteous envy, endured not one or two, but numerous labors and when he had at length suffered martyrdom, departed to the place of glory due to him. Owing to envy, Paul also obtained the reward of patient endurance, after being seven times thrown into captivity, compelled to flee, and stoned. After preaching both in the east and west, he gained the illustrious reputation due to his faith, having taught righteousness to the whole world, and come to the extreme limit of the west, and suffered martyrdom under the prefects. Thus was he removed from the world, and went into the holy place, having proved himself a striking example of patience.

Historians tend to doubt historical accounts that first appeared more than two generations (fifty years) after the events described. It takes a while for legends and embellishments to creep into historical writings, but they do creep in. Generally, historians believe that after two generations, we end up with a mixture of facts, exaggerations, embellishments, and legends. Note the gospels were written within the lifetimes of eyewitnesses to the events described. If the gospels contained false accounts, living eyewitnesses could have come forward to refute the gospels. Paul implicitly challenged the saints to consult living eyewitnesses of the risen Christ.

For what I received I passed on to you as of first importance: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, and then to the Twelve. After that, he appeared to more than five hundred of the brothers and sisters at the same time, most of whom are still living, though some have fallen asleep. Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles, and last of all he appeared to me also, as to one abnormally born. (1 Corinthians 15:3-8)

The writings of church theologian and apologist Tertullian (155-220) mention the deaths of Peter and Paul, and the persecution of John. In The Prescription Against Heretics (chapter 36), Tertullian wrote

How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! where Peter endures a passion like his Lord's! where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's! where the Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to his island-exile!

The words Peter endures a passion like his Lord's imply Peter was crucified. Notice there is no mention of being upside down. The words Paul wins his crown in a death like John's imply Paul was beheaded, as was John the Baptist. Paul was a Roman citizen. Roman citizens sentenced to death had the right to die by beheading instead of by the more hideous forms of execution reserved for non-citizens.

In Scorpiace (chapter 15), Tertullian wrote

That Peter is struck, that Stephen is overwhelmed by stones, that James is slain as is a victim at the altar, that Paul is beheaded has been written in their own blood. And if a heretic wishes his confidence to rest upon a public record, the archives of the empire will speak, as would the stones of Jerusalem. We read the lives of the Caesars: At Rome Nero was the first who stained with blood the rising faith. Then is Peter girt by another, when he is made fast to the cross.

That passage confirms Paul was beheaded and Peter was crucified.

Some works attributed to the ancient Christian writer Hippolytus of Rome (c.170-c.235) contain accounts of the martyrdoms of the apostles. Keep in mind some of Hippolytus’ accounts may be a mixture of facts and legends. Although there is solid evidence that most of the apostles were martyred, the accounts of their martyrdoms may contain embellishments that first appeared many years after the events. Hippolytus wrote

Peter preached the Gospel in Pontus, and Galatia, and Cappadocia, and Betania, and Italy, and Asia, and was afterwards crucified by Nero in Rome with his head downward, as he had himself desired to suffer in that manner.

Andrew preached to the Scythians and Thracians, and was crucified, suspended on an olive tree, at Patræ, a town of Achaia; and there too he was buried.

John, again, in Asia, was banished by Domitian the king to the isle of Patmos, in which also he wrote his Gospel and saw the apocalyptic vision; and in Trajan's time he fell asleep at Ephesus, where his remains were sought for, but could not be found.

James, his brother, when preaching in Judea, was cut off with the sword by Herod the tetrarch, and was buried there.

Philip preached in Phrygia, and was crucified in Hierapolis with his head downward in the time of Domitian, and was buried there.

Bartholomew, again, preached to the Indians, to whom he also gave the Gospel according to Matthew, and was crucified with his head downward, and was buried in Allanum, a town of the great Armenia.

And Matthew wrote the Gospel in the Hebrew tongue, and published it at Jerusalem, and fell asleep at Hierees, a town of Parthia.

And Thomas preached to the Parthians, Medes, Persians, Hyrcanians, Bactrians, and Margians, and was thrust through in the four members of his body with a pine spear at Calamene, the city of India, and was buried there.

And James the son of Alphæus, when preaching in Jerusalem, was stoned to death by the Jews, and was buried there beside the temple.

Jude, who is also called Lebbæus, preached to the people of Edessa, and to all Mesopotamia, and fell asleep at Berytus, and was buried there.

Simon the Zealot, the son of Clopas, who is also called Jude, became bishop of Jerusalem after James the Just, and fell asleep and was buried there at the age of 120 years.

And Matthias, who was one of the seventy, was numbered along with the eleven apostles, and preached in Jerusalem, and fell asleep and was buried there.

And Paul entered into the apostleship a year after the assumption of Christ; and beginning at Jerusalem, he advanced as far as Illyricum, and Italy, and Spain, preaching the Gospel for five-and-thirty years. And in the time of Nero he was beheaded at Rome, and was buried there.

Note Hippolytus explicitly states Peter was crucified upside down and Paul was beheaded. However, Hippolytus lived long after the events he describes. Since he was not an eyewitness, he had to rely on other sources. We do not know how reliable those sources are.

Note Hippolytus also states that John returned from his exile at Patmos. That happened under the amnesty that the emperor Nerva gave to victims of persecution under Domitian. The words and in Trajan's time he fell asleep at Ephesus imply John lived at least into the early years of the second century AD.

Imperial Rome unleashed her might against the Church of Christ. Rome fell, Christianity endured. Philosopher Will Durant (1885-1981) summed up the triumph of Christianity very eloquently in Caesar and Christ (p652).

There is no greater drama in human record than the sight of a few Christians, scorned or oppressed by a succession of emperors, bearing all trials with a fierce tenacity, multiplying quietly, building order while their enemies generated chaos, fighting the sword with the word, brutality with hope, and at last defeating the strongest state that history has known. Caesar and Christ had met in the arena, and Christ had won.

The apostles fulfilled Revelation 12:10-11 in their lives.

Then I heard a loud voice in heaven say: “Now have come the salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God, and the authority of his Messiah. For the accuser of our brothers and sisters, who accuses them before our God day and night, has been hurled down. They triumphed over him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony; they did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death. (Revelation 12:10-11)

Jesus said to Peter

And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. (Matthew 16:18)

Indeed, the gates of Hades did not overcome the Church of Christ. The 300 year Age of Martyrs under Imperial Rome ended long ago. The Caesars of Rome are long gone, but the spirit of Antichrist that galvanized them to do what they did remains active in the world today. In the final part of this article, we will look briefly at persecution of Christians in several countries today.

The Age of Martyrs

Part 11. Modern Day Persecution

The three hundred year Age of Martyrs under Roman rule ended long ago, but persecution of Christians continues to this day. In dozens of countries, the saints endure persecution of one form or another, ranging from harassment to outright violence and mass murder. Voice of the Martyrs (VOM) is an organization that monitors closely the plight of Christians in hostile lands, and supports frontline Christian workers in those lands. VOM was cofounded by Pastor Richard Wurmbrand (1909-2001) and his wife Sabina (1913-2000). Richard endured fourteen years of imprisonment and torture in Communist Romania because of his faith. Sabina endured three years of imprisonment and slave labor because of her faith.

VOM has identified restricted nations and hostile areas. According to the VOM website (https://www.persecution.com/globalprayerguide/?_source_code=WHPB20C),

VOM uses the term “restricted nation” to describe countries where government-sanctioned circumstances or anti-Christian laws lead to Christians being harassed, imprisoned, killed or deprived of possessions or liberties because of their witness. Also included are countries where government policy or practice prevents Christians from obtaining Bibles or other Christian literature. Christians in restricted nations often also experience persecution from family, community members and/or political groups, which VOM refers to as acts that are “hostile” toward Christian witness.

VOM uses the term “hostile area” to identify nations or large areas of nations where governments may attempt to provide protection for the Christian population but Christians are still routinely persecuted by family, friends, neighbors or political groups because of their witness.

In Muslim dominated countries, Christians who openly practice their faith are often subjected to arrest, imprisonment, beatings, torture, and death. Converts from Islam are expelled from their homes by their own families. They are openly discriminated against in hiring. Violent persecution is especially strong in nations of Central Africa, where terrorist armies like Boko Haram raid Christian communities, torture and murder Christian prisoners, kidnap young Christian girls, and force them to marry their terrorist captors. Most of the Near East is ruled by Islamic regimes. The open practice of any religion besides Islam is forbidden in most countries of the Near East. The penalties for defying the prohibition are harsh. Organized terrorist groups like ISIS continue to raid Christian communities in the Near East and in the Philippines.

In Buddhist dominated countries, Christians often endure violent persecution. In Sri Lanka, Buddhist monks stir up mobs to attack local Christians. Sometimes the local governments participate in attacks against pastors and churches. Similar persecution occurs in other Buddhist dominated countries. In Myanmar (Burma), the government joins Buddhist monks in persecution of Christians. Local officials and tribal militias also persecute Christians.

India, which is Hindu dominated, actually has laws at the local state level that forbid the conversion of Hindus to any other religion. Anti-conversion laws have been used against pastors, church planters, and evangelists. There is a growing movement to establish anti-conversion laws at the national level. Christian converts are sometimes coerced to return to Hinduism in reconversion ceremonies. Such ceremonies are becoming more common. A Hindu nationalist organization known as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) has participated in violent attacks against Christians, including beatings and clubbing. Local governments fail to protect Christians from such mob violence.

In Central and South America, Communist guerillas frequently attack Christian workers. Pastors are kidnapped and murdered. Local drug cartels also attack Christian workers.

Communist regimes in countries like China, North Korea, and Cuba oppress Christians. The Communist regime in China recognizes only a state approved church, which does not really proclaim the gospel. Pastors can only preach what the Communist regime approves, and it is not a true Christian message. Not long ago, China was becoming increasingly tolerant of religious faith. That has changed. Today, Chinese churches are demolished and believers are scattered. Christians in North Korea are sent to slave labor camps. The mere possession of a Bible is an egregious offense to the ruling Communists.

Such persecution goes on throughout Africa, the Near East, and Asia. Throughout much of the modern world, Christians endure persecution, whether it comes from militant Muslims, militant Buddhists, Hindu nationalists, Communist regimes, local tribal religious leaders, or other opponents of the gospel. Those of us living in the Western democracies enjoy religious liberties (for now), but we were given the Great Commission by none other than our Lord Jesus Christ.

Then Jesus came to them and said, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age.” (Matthew 28:18-20)  

Saints throughout the modern world are obeying the Great Commission, taking the Good News of Jesus Christ to the ends of the earth, often at great personal risk. Those saints might not be enduring persecution as horrific as in the days of Nero, Domitian, and Diocletian, but they are enduring violent and widespread persecution, even unto death. The Caesars are long gone, but the antichrist spirit that drove the Caesars remains active in the world today. Our Lord warned us we would face violent opposition for His name’s sake. He also warned that many would lay down their very lives. That has been going on for two thousand years and continues today. But we know it will all end in victory, in the Lord’s timing.

The seventh angel sounded his trumpet, and there were loud voices in heaven, which said: “The kingdom of the world has become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Messiah, and he will reign for ever and ever.” (Revelation 11:15)

He who testifies to these things says, “Yes, I am coming soon.” Amen. Come, Lord Jesus. The grace of the Lord Jesus be with God’s people. Amen. (Revelation 22:20-21)

References

Ecclesiastical History, by Eusebius

The Apology of Tertullian

Life of Constantine, by Eusebius

Caesar and Christ, by Will Durant

Persecution in the Early Church, by Everett Ferguson, Christian History, Issue 27: 1990

How the Early Church Viewed Martyrs, by William G. Bixler, Christian History, Issue 27: 1990

When Christianity Triumphed, William H. C. Frend, Christian History, Issue 27: 1990

Bald, Blind & Single?, by Stephen Miller, Christian History, Issue 27: 1990

Persecution in the Early Church: A Gallery of the Persecuting Emperors, by Mark Galli, Christian History, Issue 27: 1990

The Apostle Paul and His Times: Christian History Timeline, by Janet Meyer Everts, Christian History, Issue 27: 1990

Controversial Constantine, by David F. Wright, Christian History, Issue 27: 1990

The Occasion of the Domitianic Persecution, by Donald McFayden, The American Journal of Theology, Vol. 24, No. 1 (January 1920)

Apostolic Preaching and Emperor Worship, by H. A. A. Kennedy, Expositor, VII (1909)

Lives of the Later Caesars, edited by Betty Radice